lEx  SjtbrtH 


SEYMOUR  DURST 


When  you  leave,  please  leave  this  hook 

Because  it  has  heen  said 
"Sver'thing  comes  t'  him  who  waits 

Except  a  loaned  hook." 


OLD   YORK   LIBRARY  -  OLD   YORK  FOUNDATION 


Avery  Architectural  and  Fine  Arts  Library 
Gift  of  Seymour  B.  Durst  Old  York  Library 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


A  MANUAL  OF  THEORETICAL  AND 
PRACTICAL  SANITATION. 


FOR  STUDENTS  AND  PHYSICIANS ;  FOR  HEALTH,  SANI- 
TARY, TENEMENT-HOUSE,  PLUMBING,  FACTORY, 
FOOD,  AND  OTHER  INSPECTORS;  AS  WELL  AS 
FOR  CANDIDATES  FOR  ALL  MUNICIPAL 
SANITARY  POSITIONS 


BY 

GEORGE  M.  PRICE,  M.D., 

Medical  Sanitary  Inspector,  Department  of  Health,  New  York  City , 
Inspector  Neiv  York  Sanitary  Aid  Society  of  the  10th  Ward,  1885; 
Manager  Model  Tenement-houses  of  the  New  York  Tenement' 
house  Building  Company,  1888 :  Inspector  New  York 
State  Tenement-house  Commission,  1895. 


FIRST  EDITION. 
FIRST  THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK: 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS. 
London:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited. 
1901. 


Copyright,  1901, 

BY 

GEORGE  M.  PRICE. 


ROBERT  DRUVMOND,  PRINTER,  NEW  YORK. 


TO 

JACOB   A.  EIIS, 

To  whose  profound  knowledge  of  "How  the  Other  Half  Lives,"  deep 
feeling  for  the  "  Children  of  the  Poor,"  and  strenuous  efforts  in  behalf 
of  the  tenement-house  population  of  New  York,  a  great  many  sanitary 
*  improvements  and  progress  in  tenemeiit-house  reform  are  due, 
this  book  is  dedicated  in  appreciation  and  respect 
By  the  Authob. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2013 


http://archive.org/details/handbookonsanitaOOpric_0 


PREFACE. 


In  tliis  era  of  intense  interest  in  all  matters  relating 
to  public  health  and  practical  sanitation,  no  defence 
is  needed  for  the  presentation  of  a  new  book  on  the  sub- 
ject, especially  as  the  book  presents  the  matter  in  a 
form  hitherto  unexploited. 

Municipal  Sanitation  has  made  giant  strides  within 
the  last  decade;  and  the  circle  of  those  whose  duties 
compel  them  to  make  a  special  study  of  sanitary  ques- 
tions has  been  considerably  widened  within  the  last  few 
years. 

The  number  of  inspectors  in  the  various  municipal 
health,  building,  sanitary,  and  other  similar  depart- 
ments, is  already  quite  large,  and  the  tendency  is  to  a 
further  augmentation  of  their  number. 

Moreover,  the  time  when  inexperienced  men  could 
he  appointed  as  Sanitary  and  Health  Inspectors  has 
passed,  and  certain  quite  important  and  strict  qualifica- 
tions are  required  of  the  candidates  for  one  of  these  mu- 
nicipal positions.  These  requirements  and  qualifica- 
tions for  sanitary  positions  are  constantly  being  made 
more  strict  and  thorough;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
Surgeon-General  W.  Wyman  is  right  in  saying:  In 
the  sanitary  progress  of  the  new  century,  it  has  occurred 


vi 


PREFACE, 


to  me,  there  must  be  developed  a  new  class  of  individ- 
uals in  sanitary  affairs."  (Journal  Am.  Med.  Asso., 
March,  1901.) 

There  are  several  thousand  inspectors  in  the  various 
sanitary  municipal  departments  throughout  the  United 
States,  and  this  number  is  being  increased  every  year. 
I^ew  York  City  alone  has  added  over  200  inspectors  in 
its  newly-established  Tenement-house  Department, 
which  is  to  begin  its  existence  January,  1902. 

In  spite,  however,  of  the  growling  number  of  sanitary 
inspectors,  the  still  greater  number  of  candidates  for  in- 
spectorships, and  the  general  interest  in  sanitary  ques- 
tions, there  are  as  yet  very  few  sources  where  the  de- 
sired and  necessary  knowledge  may  be  gained.  In  Eng- 
land there  is  an  extensive  literature  on  the  subject; 
there  are  dozens  of  special  books  on  Sanitation,  a  large 
number  of  practical  manuals,  and  a  number  of  aids, 
helps,  and  handbooks  on  all  sanitary  subjects.  Here 
in  the  United  States  one  has  to  consult  the  sev- 
eral bulky  text-books  on  hj^giene  intended  for  medical 
men  only.  Except  for  Dr.  R.  S.  Tracy's  little  book  on 
Sanitary  Information,''  and  Mr.  P.  Gerhardt's  popular 
books  on  plumbing,  there  are  no  books  from  which  the 
municipal  sanitary  inspector,  and  especially  the  candi- 
date for  such  a  position,  can  learn  what  is  necessary  for 
him  to  know. 

These  were  the  considerations  which  have  induced  me 
to  undertake  the  present  work.  While  I  do  not  pretend 
to  have  written  a  text-book  on  the  subject  of  Sanitation, 
I  hope  to  have  succeeded  in  presenting  the  subject  in  a 
condensed  and  practical  form,  so  as  to  enable  the  stu- 


PREFACE. 


vii 


dent  and  candidate  to  make  a  creditable  showing  in  the 
civil-service  competitive  examinations,  as  well  as  sub- 
sequently to  fill  one  of  the  sanitarv  positions. 

The  first  step  in  the  study  of  Sanitation  is  to  under- 
stand the  principles  of  the  science.  In  Part  I.,  on  Sani- 
tary Science,  I  have  endeavored  to  give  a  condensed  but 
comprehensive  resume  of  the  best  text-books  on  the 
subject. 

Part  II.  is  on  Sanitary  Practice,  upon  which  very  lit- 
tle has  hitherto  been  written  from  a  practical  stand- 
point. In  this  part  are  given  the  methods  of  applica- 
tion of  sanitary  science  in  the  various  municipal  de- 
partments, with  extracts  from  the  laws,  rules,  and  reg- 
ulations of  Xew  York  and  other  municipalities. 

Part  III.  of  the  book  relates  to  the  inspector  himself, 
his  duties,  the  art  of  his  profession,  his  standing,  quali- 
fications, etc.;  this  part  also  contains  some  useful  hints 
which  will  doubtless  aid  him,  as  they  will  the  candidate 
for  an  inspectorship. 

Part  IV.  contains,  besides  the  chapters  on  Sanitary 
Law  and  Sanitary  Organization  in  the  United  States,  ex- 
tracts from  model  laws  on  the  various  branches  of  Sani- 
tation. 

It  is  right  here  to  mention  that  for  all  information  as 
to  the  laws  and  practice  of  Sanitation  outside  of  Xew 
York,  I  am  indebted  to  the  new  book  on  "  Municipal 
Sanitation  in  the  United  States,"  by  Dr.  Chas.  V. 
Chapin,  for  the  publication  of  which  all  interested  in 
Sanitation  will  be  thankful. 

I  cannot  close  these  few  remarks  on  the  scope  of  the 
book  without  publicly  acknowledging  my  deep  gratitude 


viii 


PREFACE. 


to,  and  appreciation  of,  the  assistance  of  tliose  who 
liave,  in  one  way  or  another,  kindly  helped  nie  in  the 
preparation  of  this  work. 

Figure  2  in  this  work  is  from  ' '  Disposal  of  House- 
hold Waste,"  and  figures  19,  20,  21  are  from  "House 
Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing,"  both  by  Mr.  W.  P. 
Gerhard,  published  by  D.  Yan  IS^ostrand  Co.,  New 
York,  and  are  here  used  with  the  kind  permission  of 
the  author. 

To  the  eminent  sanitarian,  Dr.  Roger  Sherman 
Tracy,  I  herein  render  my  deep  regard  for  the  advice 
and  valuable  suggestions  given  me.  My  heartfelt 
thanks  are  due  to  my  friend^  Dr.  Walter  Brooks 
Brouner,  for  the  laborious  task  of  revising  the  manu- 
script of  the  book.  Thanks  are  also  due  to  Mr.  H. 
Bramley  and  Dr.  Michael  B.  Feeney,  Chief  Sanitary 
Inspector  of  the  Health  Department  of  E^ew  York  City, 
for  kindness  and  assistance  in  various  ways. 

Finally,  I  must  ask  the  forbearance  of  readers  for 
any  and  all  inaccuracies  and  errors  that  may  be  found  in 
my  book,  promising  to  correct  these  in  any  future  edi- 
tions of  the  work,  if  such  are  called  for. 

247  East  Broadway,  New  York  City, 
October,  1901. 


EEEATA. 

Page  9,  line  13,  for  depends  read  depend 


"     12  ' 

'  5 

"  cloaca      "  cloac8S 

"     17  ' 

'  15 

"  vitiates  the  air  as  much  Tend  vitiates  as 

much  air  as 

"    23.  ' 

"  Properties  or  diffusion  rccid  Properties  of 

vlllJL  UolVyll 

'  20 

"  Pnaphdnlp  vpctd  Pnplipdalp 

"  tnlfp^s                    tall  ill  o" 

WIIJU.OWS  OH  uctiis,  aiittibo,  etc.,  IS  1  ttiLi  Win- 

dows in  halls  is 

"  127,  ' 

'  1, 

"  gas-tight  adjusted  read  adjusted  gas-tight 

"  129,  ' 

' 

' '  conditions  of  living  in  cellars  read  condi- 

tions of  living  in  basements  of  new  houses 

"  162,  ' 

'  25, 

Dr.  M.  Betz  read  Dr.  H.  Betz 

"  182,  ' 

'  30, 

"  he,  on  the  contrary,  gets  read  he  gets 

"  187,  ' 

'  3, 

"  thoroughtly  read  thoroughly 

222,  ' 

'  22, 

"  Licurgus  read  Lycurgus 

"  225,  ' 

'  30, 

"  with  its  45000  Tenements  read  with  its 

45000  tenement-houses  in  Manhattan  and 

the  Bronx 

"  308,  ' 

'  1, 

"  M.  Betz  7'ead  H.  Betz 

"  308,  * 

219  read  222 

CONTENTS. 


PART  FIRST.— SANITARY  SCIENCE. 

CHAPTER  PAOB 

I.  Soil  and  Sites. 

Definition,  Composition,  Solids,  Ground-water,  Ground- 
air,  Ground-moisture,  Ground-temperature,  Bacteria  Con- 
tamination of  tlie  Soil,  Influence  of  Soil  on  Health,  Diseases 


due  to  Soil,  Sites,  Prevention  of  the  Bad  Effects  of  the 
Soil  on  Health,  The  Proper  Construction  of  a  House,  Sub- 
soil Drainage   1 

II.  Air. 

Composition,  Humidity,  Pressure,  Temperature,  Impuri- 
ties in  Air,  Impurities  According  to  their  Source,  Influence 
of  Air  on  Health,  Diseases  Due  to  Impure  Air   13 

III.  Ventilation. 

Definition,  Quantity  of  Air  Required,  Agents  of  Ventila- 
tion, Methods  of  Ventilation,  Natural  Ventilation,  Artificial 
Ventilation   19 

IV.  Warming. 

Ventilation  and  Heating,  Need  of  Heating,  The  Three 
Methods  of  Heating,  Materials  of  Combustion,  Chimneys, 
Smoky  Chimneys,  Open  Fire-places  and  Grates,  Stoves, 
Hot-air  "Warming,  Hot- water  System,  Steam  Heating   31 

V  Water. 

Composition,  Quantity  Required,  Characteristics  and 
Quality  of  Water,  Source,  Impurities,  Pollution,  Influence 
on  Health,  Diseases  Due  to  Impure  Water   40 

VI.  Water-supply. 

Sources,  Rain-water,  Surface,  Subsurface,  Storage,  Col- 
lection and  Distribution,  Purification   44 

ix 


K 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEll  PAGE 

VII.  Disposal  of  Si^waoe, 

Waste  Products,  Sewage,  Modes  of  Ultimale  Disposal, 
Immediate  Disposal,  Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States, 
The  Dry  Methods,  The  Water-carriage  System,  The 
Separate  and  the  Combined   49 

VIII.  Sewers. 

Definitions,  Materials,  Construction,  Joints,  Fall,  Flow, 
Size,  Connections,  Tide- valves,  House-sewer,  Sewer-air  and 
Gas,  Ventilation   59 

IX.  Plumbing,     General  Principles. 

Purposes  and  Requisites,  Definitions,  Materials  Em- 
ployed, Joints  and  Connections,  Traps,  Causes  of  Loss  of 

Seal   66 

X.  Plumbing  Pipes. 

The  House-drain,  The  Soil-  and  Waste-pipes,  Branch 
Soil-  and  Waste-pipes,  Vent-pipes,  Rain-leaders   79 

XI.  Plumbing  Fixtures. 

Sinks,  Wash-basins,  Wash-tubs,  Bath-tubs,  Refrigera- 
tors, Boilers,  Urinals,  Overflows,  Safes  and  Wastes,  Water- 
closets,  Yard  and  Area  Drains   90 

XII.  Defects  in  Plumbing  ;  Examination  and  Tests. 

Defects,  Minor  Tests,  Hydraulic  Test,  Smoke  Test,  Scent 
Test   104 

PART  SECOND.— SANITARY  PRACTICE. 

I.  The  Tenement-house  Problem   Ill 

II.  Tenement-houses   117 

III.  Private  Dwellings   134 

IV.  Lodging-houses   136 

V.  Sweat-shops   138 

VI.  Workshops  and  Factories   141 

VII.  Mercantile  Establishments   145 

VIII.  The  Smoke  Nuisance   146 

IX.  Bakeries   148 

X.  Stables   151 

XL  Slaughter-houses    154 

XII.  Offensive  Trades   -  156 


CONTENTS,  Xl* 

CHAPTER  PAGK 

XIII.  Food   15^ 

XIV  Meat   160 

XV.  Milk  and  Milk-inspection   164 

XVI.  Infectious  Diseases   169 

XVII.  Disinfection  AND  Disinfectants   17^ 

XVIII.  School  Inspection   176 

PART  THIRD. -SANITARY  INSPECTION. 

I  Sanitation  as  a  Profession   178 

II.  Qualifications  FOR  AND  Art  of  Inspection   186 

III.  Tenement-house  Inspection   189 

IV.  Sanitary  Inspectors  in  the  United  States   193 

V.  Civil-service  Examinations   200 

VI,  Notes  of  a  Complete  Tenement- house  Inspection.  .  205 

VII.  Example  of  a  Complaint  and  Report  208 

VIII.  Calculation  of  Areas  and  Cubic  Space   212 

IX.  Useful  Memoranda  and  Tables   217 

PART  FOURTH.— SANITARY  LAW. 

I.  Sanitary  Law   221 

II.  Sanitary  Organization  in  the  United  States   224 

III.  The  Tenement-house  Law   227 

IV.  The  Tenement-house  Department  of  New  York 

City   259 

V.  Plumbing  Regulations   271 

VI   On  Disinfection  and  Disinfectants   288 

VII.  The  Duties  OF  Milk  Inspectors  298 

VIII.  On  School  Inspection   304 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

1.  Concrete    Foundation    and    Damp-proof  Course. 

(From  Taylor's  "  Sanitary  Inspectors's  Handbook.")  ....  11 

2.  Subsoil  Drain-pipes.    (Gerhard.)   11 

3.  HiNKES  Bird  Window.    (Taylor.)   24 

4.  Ellison's  Bricks.    (From  Knight's  Diagrammettes.)   25 

5.  Sherringham  Valye.    (Taylor.)   26 

6.  Tobin's  Tubes.    (Knight.)     26 

7.  McKinnell's  Ventilator.    (Taylor.)   27 

8.  SuNBURNER.    (Knight.)   28 

9.  Cowl  Ventilators.    (Knight.)   29 

10.  Air-propeller   30 

11.  Galton  Grate.   (From  Tracy's  "  Sanitary  Information.")  36 

12.  Hot-air  Furnace   37 

13.  Brick  Sewer   60 

14.  Nomenclature  OP  Traps.     (Knight.)   71 

I  Pipes:  Forms,  Lengths,  and  Connections   71,  72 

15.  S 

15.  Rain-leader   73 

17.  Traps   .  76,  77,  79 

18.  System  of  House  Drainage.  (Drawn  by  Harry  Bra mley.)  82 

19.  Pan  Water-closet.    (Gerhard.)   94 

20.  Long  Hopper.    (Gerhard.)   95 

21.  Short  Hopper.    (Gerhard.)    96 

22.  Washout  Water-closet   97 

23.  Washdown  Water-closet   97 

24.  Flushing-cistern   98 

25.  School  Sink   99 

26.  J.  Sullivan's  Improved  Yard  Hopper  Closets   101 

27.  A  Modern  Water-closet   102 

28.  Types  of  Tenement-houses   118 

29.  A  Typical  Slaughter-house   155 

30.  Lactometer   165 

xii 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


PART  FIRST. 
ISANITARY  SCIENCE. 


CHAPTER  L 
SOIL  Ai^D  SITES. 

Definition. — By  the  term  soil  we  mean  the  super- 
ficial layer  of  the  earth,  a  result  of  the  geological  disin- 
tegration of  the  primitive  rock  by  the  action  of  the 
elements  upon  it. 

Composition. — Soil  consists  of  solids,  water,  and 
air. 

Solids. — The  solid  constituents  of  the  soil  are  inor- 
ganic and  organic  in  character. 

The  inorganic  constituents  are  the  various  minerals 
and  elements  found  alone  or  in  combination  in  the 
earth,  such  as  silica,  aluminum,  calcium,  iron,  carbon, 
sodium,  chlorine,  potassium,  etc. 

The  characteristics  of  the  soil  depend  upon  its  con- 
stituents, and  upon  the  predominance  of  one  or  the 
other  of  its  composing  elements.  The  nature  of  the 
soil  also  depends  upon  its  physical  properties.  When 


2 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


the  disintegrated  rock  consists  of  quite  large  particles, 
the  soil  is  called  a  gravel  soil.  A  sandy  soil  is  one  in 
which  the  particles  are  very  small.  Sandstone  is  con- 
solidated sand.  Clay  is  soil  consisting  principally  of 
aluminum  silicate;  in  clialh  soft  calcium  carbonate  pre- 
dominates. 

The  organic  constituents  of  the  soil  are  the  result  of 
vegetable  and  animal  growth  and  decomposition  in  the 
soil. 

Ground-water. — Ground-water  is  that  continuous 
body  or  sheet  of  water  formed  by  the  complete  filling 
and  saturation  of  the  soil  to  a  certain  level  by  rain- 
water; it  is  that  stratum  of  subterranean  lakes  and 
rivers  filled  up  with  allmdum  which  we  reach  at  a 
higher  or  lower  level  when  we  dig  wells. 

The  level  of  the  ground-water  depends  upon  the  un- 
derlying strata,  and  also  upon  the  movements  of  the 
subterranean  water-bed.  The  relative  position  of  the 
impermeable  underlying  strata  varies  in  its  distance 
from  the  surface-soil.  In  marshy  land  the  ground-wa- 
ter is  at  the  surface;  in  other  places  it  can  be  reached 
only  by  deep  borings.  The  source  of  the  ground-water 
is  the  rainfall  J  part  of  which  drains  into  the  porous  soil 
until  it  reaches  an  impermeable  stratum,  where  it  col- 
lects. 

The  movements  of  the  ground-water  are  in  two  direc- 
tions— horizontal  and  vertical.  The  horizontal  or  lat- 
eral movement  is  toward  the  seas  and  adjacent  water- 
courses, and  is  determined  by  hydrostatic  laws  and  top- 
ographical relations.  The  vertical  motion  of  the 
ground-water  is  to  and  from  the  surface,  and  is  due  to 


SOIL  AND  SITES. 


3 


the  amount  of  rainfall,  the  pressure  of  tides,  and 
watercourses  into  which  the  ground-water  drains.  The 
vertical  variations  of  the  ground-water  determine  the 
distance  of  its  surface-level  from  the  soil-surface,  and 
are  divided  into  a  persistently  low-water  level,  about 
15  feet  from  the  surface;  a  persistently  high-water 
level,  about  5  feet  from  the  surface,  and  a  fluctuating 
level,  sometimes  high,  sometimes  low. 

Ground-air. — Except  in  the  hardest  granite  rocks 
and  in  soil  completely  filled  with  water,  the  interstices 
of  the  soil  are  filled  with  a  continuation  of  atmospheric 
air,  the  amount  depending  on  the  degree  of  porosity  of 
the  soil.  The  nature  of  the  ground-air  differs  from  that 
of  the  atmosphere  only  as  it  is  influenced  by  its  loca- 
tion. The  principal  constituents  of  the  air — nitrogen, 
oxygen,  and  carbonic  acid — are  also  found  in  the 
ground-air,  but  in  the  latter  the  relative  quantities  of 
each  are  different. 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  ATMOSPHERIC  AIR  IN  100 
VOLUMES. 

Mtrogen  .79.00% 


Oxygen  

Carbonic  acid. 


20.96% 
0.04% 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  GROUND-AIR. 


!N"itrogen  .  .  . 

Oxygen  

Carbonic  acid. 


79.00% 
10.35% 
9.74% 


Of  course  these  quantities  are  not  constant,  but  vary 
in  different  soils,  and  at  different  depths,  times,  etc. 
The  greater  quantity  of  CO2  in  ground-air  is  due  to 


4 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


the  processes  of  oxidation  and  decomposition  taking 
place  in  the  soil.  Ground-air  also  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  bacterial  and  other  organic  and  gaseous 
matter  found  in  the  soil. 

Ground-air  is  in  constant  motion,  its  movements  de- 
pending upon  a  great  many  factors,  some  among  these 
being  the  winds  and  movements  of  the  atmospheric  air; 
the  temperature  of  the  soil;  the  surface  temperature; 
the  pressure  from  the  ground-water  from  below,  and 
surface-  and  rain-water  from  above,  etc. 

Ground- moisture. — The  interstices  of  the  soil  above 
the  ground-water  level  are  filled  with  air  oj^ly,  when 
the  soil  is  absolutely  dry;  but  as  such  a  soil  is  very  rare, 
all  soils  being  more  or  less  damp,  soil  usually  contains 
a  mixture  of  air  and  water,  or  what  is  called  ground- 
moisture. 

Ground-moisture  is  derived  partly  from  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  ground-water  and  its  capillary  absorption 
by  the  surface-soil,  and  partly  by  the  retention  of  wa- 
ter from  rains  upon  the  surface.  The  power  of  the 
soil  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture  varies  according  to 
the  physical  and  chemical,  as  well  as  the  thermal,  prop- 
erties of  the  soil. 

Loose  sand  may  hold  about  2  gallons  of  water  per 
cubic  foot;  granite  takes  up  about  4%  of  moisture; 
chalk  about  15%;  clay  about  20%;  sandy  loam  33  to 
35%;  humus  about  40%. 

Ground-temperature. — The  temperature  of  the  soil 
is  due  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  the  physico-chemical 
changes  in  its  interior,  and  to  the  internal  heat  of  the 
earth. 


SOIL  AyD  SITES. 


'5 


The  ground-temperature  varies  according  to  the  an- 
nual and  diurnal  changes  of  the  external  temperature; 
also  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil,  its  color, 
composition,  depth,  degree  of  organic  oxidation,  ground- 
water level,  and  degree  of  dampness.  In  hot  weather 
the  surface-soil  is  cooler,  and  the  subsurface-soil  still 
more  so,  than  the  surrounding  air;  in  cokl  weather  the 
opposite  is  the  case.  The  contact  of  the  cool  soil  with 
the  warm  surface-air  on  summer  evenings  is  w^hat  pro- 
duces the  condensation  of  air-moisture  wdiich  we  call 
dew. 

Bacteria. — Quite  a  large  number  of  bacteria  are 
found  in  the  soil,  especially  near  the  surface,  where 
chemical  and  organic  changes  are  most  active.  From 
200,000  to  1,000,000  bacteria  have  been  found  in  one 
c.c.  of  earth.  The  ground  bacteria  are  divided  into  two 
groups — saprophytic  and  pathogenic.  The  saprophytic 
bacteria  are  the  bacteria  of  decay,  putrefaction,  and 
fermentation.  It  is  to  their  benevolent  action  that 
vegetable  and  animal  debris  is  decomposed,  oxidized, 
and  reduced  to  its  elements.  To  these  bacteria  the  soil 
owes  its  self-purifying  capacity  and  the  faculty  of  dis- 
integrating animal  and  vegetable  debris. 

The  pathogenic  bacteria  are  either  those  formed  dur- 
ing the  process  of  organic  decay,  and  which,  introduced 
into  the  human  system,  are  capable  of  producing  va- 
rious diseases,  or  those  which  become  lodged  in  the  soil 
through  the  contamination  of  the  latter  by  ground- 
water and  air,  and  which  find  in  the  soil  a  favorable 
culture-medium,  until  forced  out  of  the  soil  by  the 
movements  of  the  ground-water  and  air. 


6 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


Contamination  of  the  Soil. — The  natural  capacity 
of  the  soil  to  decompose  and  reduce  organic  matter  is 
sometimes  taxed  to  its  utmost  by  the  introduction  into 
the  soil  of  extraneous  matters  in  quantities  which  the 
soil  is  unable  to  oxidize  in  a  given  period.  This  is 
called  contamination  or  pollution  of  soil,  and  is  due : 

1)  to  surface  pollution  by  refuse,  garbage,  animal, 
and  human  excreta; 

2)  to  interment  of  dead  bodies  of  beasts  and  men; 

3)  to  the  introduction  of  foreign  deleterious  gases, 
etc. 

Pollution  by  Surface  Refuse  and  Sewage. — This  oc- 
curs where  a  large  number  of  people  congregate,  as  in 
cities,  towns,  etc.,  and  very  seriously  contaminates  the 
ground  by  the  surcharge  of  the  surface-soil  with  sewage 
matter,  saturating  the  ground  with  it,  polluting  the 
ground-water  from  which  the  drinking-water  is  de- 
rived, and  increasing  the  putrefactive  changes  taking 
phice  in  the  soil.  Here  the  pathogenic  bacteria  abound, 
and,  by  multiplying,  exert  a  very  marked  influence  upon 
the  health,  and  cause  the  various  infectious  diseases. 
Sewage  pollution  of  the  soils  and  of  the  source  of  water- 
supply  is  a  matter  of  grave  importance,  and  is  one  of 
the  chief  factors  of  high  mortality  in  cities  and  towns. 

Interment  of  Bodies. — The  second  cause  of  soil 
contamination  is  also  of  great  importance.  Owing  to 
the  intense  physico-chemical  and  organic  changes  tak- 
ing place  Avithin  the  soil,  all  dead-animal  matter  in- 
terred therein  is  easily  disposed  of  in  a  certain  time, 
being  reduced  to  more  or  less  common  elements,  viz., 
jmimonia,  nitrous  acid,  carbonic  acid,  sulphuretted  and 


SOIL  ANB  SITES. 


7 


carbiiretted  hydrogen,  etc.  But  whenever  the  number 
of  interred  bodies  is  too  great,  and  the  products  of  de- 
composition are  alloAved  to  accumulate  to  a  veiy  great 
degree,  until  the  ca})acity  of  the  soil  to  absorb  and  oxid- 
ize them  is  overtaxed,  the  soil,  and  the  air  and  water 
therein,  are  })o]luted  by  the  noxious  poisons  produced 
by  the  processes  of  decomposition. 

Introduction  of  Various  Foreign  Materials  and 
Gases. — In  cities  and  towns  various  pipes  are  laid  in 
the  ground  for  conducting  certain  substances,  as  illu- 
minating gas,  fuel  coal-gas,  etc. ;  the  pipes  at  times  are 
defective,  allowing  leakage  therefrom,  and  permitting 
the  saturation  of  the  soil  with  poisonous  gases  which 
are  frequently  drawn  up  by  the  various  currents  of 
ground-air  into  the  open  air  and  adjacent  dwellings. 

Influence  of  the  Soil  on  Health. — The  intimate  rela- 
tions existing  between  the  soil  upon  which  we  live  and 
our  health,  and  the  marked  influence  of  the  soil  on  the 
life  and  well-being  of  man,  have  been  recognized  from 
time  immemorial. 

The  influence  of  the  soil  upon  health  is  due  to : 

1)  the  physical  and  chemical  character  of  the  soil; 

2)  the  ground-water  level  and  degree  of  dampness ; 

3)  the  organic  impurities  and  contamination  of  the 
soil. 

T^  physical  and  chemical  nature  of  the  soil,  irre- 
spective of  its  water,  moisture,  and  air,  has  been  found 
to  produce  a  certain  marked  effect  on  the  health, 
growth,  and  constitution  of  man.  The  peculiar  disease 
called  cretinism,  as  well  as  goitre,  has  been  traced 
directly  to  a  certain  chemical  composition  of  the  soil. 


8 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


The  ground-water  level  is  of  great  importance  to  the 
well-being  of  man.  It  has  been  definitely  ascertained 
that  a  persistently  low-water  level  (about  15  feet  from 
the  surface)  is  healthy,  the  mortality  being  the  lowest 
in  such  places;  a  persistently  high  ground-water  level 
(about  5  feet  from  the  surface)  is  unhealthy;  and  a 
fluctuating  level,  varying  from  high  to  low^,  is  the  most 
unhealthy,  and  is  dangerous  to  life  and  health.  Malaria 
and  other  paroxysmal  fevers,  tuberculosis,  rheumatism, 
neuralgias,  etc.,  were  traced  directly  to  a  high-water 
level  and  marshy  ground. 

A  damp  soil,  viz.,  a  soil  wherein  the  ground-moisture 
is  very  great  and  persistent,  has  been  found  inimical 
to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants,  favoring  the  de- 
velopment of  various  diseases  by  the  direct  effect  of  the 
dampness  itself,  and  by  the  greater  proneness  of  damp 
ground  to  become  contaminated  with  various  patho- 
genic bacteria  and  organisms  which  may  be  drawn  into 
the  dwellings  by  the  movements  of  the  ground-air.  As 
a  rule  there  is  very  little  to  hinder  the  ground-air  from 
penetrating  the  dwellings  of  man,  air  being  drawn  in 
through  cellars  by  changes  in  temperature,  and  by  the 
artificial  heating  of  houses. 

The  organic  impurities  and  bacteria  found  in  the  soil 
are  especially  abundant  in  large  cities,  and  are  a  great 
cause  of  the  evil  influence  of  soil  upon  health.  The  im- 
purities are  allowed  to  drain  into  the  ground,  to  pollute 
the  ground-water  and  the  source  of  water-supply,  and  to 
poison  the  ground-air,  loading  it  with  bacteria  and 
products  of  putrefaction,  thus  ph\ving  havoc  with  the 
health  of  humaia  beings. 


SOIL  AKB  SITES. 


9 


Diseases  due  to  Soil. — A  great  many  diseases  have 
been  traced  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  influence  of  the 
soil.  The  manner  in  which  these  diseases  are  contracted 
has  not  been  as  yet  clearly  proven  in  all  cases.  The 
following  diseases  have  been  mentioned  as  traceable  to 
soil  influences :  Malaria,  Paroxysmal  Fevers,  Tubercu- 
losis, ^^'euralgias,  Cholera,  Yellow  Fever,  Bubonic 
Plague,  Typhoid,  Dysentery,  Goitre  and  Cretinism,  Te- 
tanus, Anthrax,  Malignant  CEdema,  Septicaemia,  etc. 

Sites. — From  what  we  have  already  learned  about  the 
soil,  it  is  evident  that  it  is  a  matter  of  great  importance 
as  to  where  a  site  for  a  human  habitation  is  selected, 
for  upon  the  proper  selection  of  the  site  depends  the 
health,  well-being,  and  longevity  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  requisite  characteristics  of  a  healthy  site  for  dwell- 
ings are:  A  dry,  porous,  permeable  soil;  a  low  and 
non-fluctuating  ground-water  level,  and  a.  soil  retaining 
very  little  dampness,  free  from  organic  impurities,  and 
the  ground-water  of  which  is  well  drained  into  distant 
watercourses,  while  its  ground-air  is  uncontaminated 
by  pathogenic  bacteria.  Exposure  to  sunlight,  and  free 
circulation  of  air,  are  also  requisite. 

According  to  Parkes,  the  soils  in  the  order  of  their 
fitness  for  building  purposes  are  as  follows:  1)  prim- 
itive rock;  2)  gravel  with  pervious  soil;  3)  sandstone; 
4)  limestone;  5)  sandstone  with  impervious  subsoil; 
6)  clays  and  marls;  7)  marshy  land;  and  8)  made  soils. 

It  is  very  seldom,  however,  that  a  soil  can  be  secured 
having  all  the  requisites  of  a  healthy  site.  In  smaller 
places,  as  well  as  in  cities,  commercial  and  other  reasons 
frequently  compel  the  acquisition  of  and  building  upon 


10 


HANDBOOK  OX  SAXITATIOy. 


a  site  not  lit  for  tlie  purpose;  it  then  becomes  a  sanitary 
problem  liow  to  remedy  the  defects  and  make  the  soil 
suitable  for  habitation. 

Prevention  of  the  Bad  Effects  of  the  Soil  on 
Health. — The  methods  taught  by  sanitary  science  to 
improve  a  defective  soil  and  to  prepare  a  healthy  site 
are  following: 

1)  Street-paving  and  tree-planting. 

2)  Proper  construction  of  houses. 

3)  Subsoil  drainage. 

Street-paving  serves  a  double  sanitary  purpose.  It 
prevents  street-refuse  and  sewage  from  penetrating  the 
ground  and  contaminating  the  surface-soil,  and  it  acts 
as  a  barrier  to  the  free  ascension  of  deleterious  ground- 
air. 

Tree-planting  acts  as  a  factor  in  absorbing  the 
ground-moisture  and  in  oxidizing  organic  impurities. 
The  Proper  Construction  of  the  House  has  for  its 

purpose  the  prevention  of  the  entrance  of  ground- 
moisture  and  air  inside  the  house  by  building  the  foun- 
dations and  cellar  in  such  a  manner  as  to  entirely  cut 
off  communication  between  the  ground  and  the  dwell- 
ing. This  is  accomplished  by  putting  under  the  foun- 
dation a  solid  bed  of  concrete,  and  under  the  founda- 
tion-walls damp-proof  courses.  By  cementing  the 
cellar  with  a  proper  cement  of  suitable  thickness,  damp- 
ness and  ground-air  are  prevented  from  entering. 

Subsoil  drainage. — By  subsoil  drainage  is  meant  the 
reducing  of  the  level  of  the  ground-water  by  draining 
all  subsoil  water  into  certain  watercourses,  either  arti 
ficial  or  natural.    Subsoil  drainage  is  not  a  modern  dis- 


BOIL  AND  SITES. 


Fig.  2. — Subsoil  Drain-pipes. 


12 


HANDBOOK  OX  SANITATION. 


covery,  as  it  was  used  in  many  ancient  lands,  and  was 
extensively  employed  in  ancient  Rome,  the  valleys  and 
suburbs  of  which  would  have  been  uninhabitable  but 
for  the  draining  of  the  marshes  by  the  so-called 
cloaca  or  drains,  which  lowered  the  ground-water 
level  of  the  low  parts  of  the  city  and  made  them  fit  to 
build  upon.  The  drains  for  the  conduction  of  subsoil 
water  are  placed  at  a  certain  depth,  with  a  fall  toward 
the  exit.  The  materials  for  the  drain  are  either  stone 
and  gravel  trenches,  or,  better,  porous  earthenware 
pipes  or  ordinary  drain-tile.  The  drains  must  not 
be  impermeable  or  closed,  and  sewers  are  not  to  be  used 
for  drainage  purposes.  Sometimes  open  V-shaped 
pipes  are  laid  under  the  regular  sewers,  if  these  are  at 
the  proper  depth. 

By  subsoil  drainage  it  is  possible  to  lower  the  level 
of  ground-water  wherever  it  is  near  or  at  the  surface, 
as  in  swamps,  marsh,  and  other  lands,  and  prepare  lands 
previously  uninhabitable  for  healthy  sites. 


CHAPTER  11. 


AIE. 


Composition. — The  composition  of  atmospheric  air  is 
quite  uniform,  and  is  as  follows  in  100  volumes: 


Ozone,  traces  of  ammonia,  aqueous  vapor,  sus- 
pended solids,  and  variable  gases. 

Nitrogen. — The  quantity  of  this  constituent  is  in- 
variable. Its  function  seems  to  be  that  of  a  diluent  of 
the  oxygen,  and  as  a  participant  in  the  various  chemical 
processes  of  vegetable  life. 

Oxygen  varies  in  quantity  but  very  little,  from 
20.98%  in  pure  mountain  air  to  20.87%  in  the  air  of 
cities.  The  greatest  variation  exists  between  inspired 
and  expired  air.  In  expired  air  the  volume  of  oxygen 
present  is  16.03%,  as  compared  with  the  20.87%  in 
city  air.  Oxygen  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  air 
constituents.  Light,  heat,  growth,  and  life  itself,  are 
due  to  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  without  which  vegetable, 
animal,  and  human  life  would  be  extinct,  and  the  earth 
cold,  barren,  and  lifeless.    When  the  relative  quantity 


iN^itrogen  . .  . 

Oxygen  

Carbonic  acid, 


79.00% 
20.96% 
00.04% 


13 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


of  oxygen  in  the  air  falls  below  8%,  animals  cannot 
breatlie,  but  become  asphyxiated. 

Carbonic  acid  or  CO2  (its  chemical  formula)  is  found 
in  the  air  in  the  small  average  quantity  of  0.04%,  or  4 
parts  in  10,000;  the  greatest  quantity  in  confined 
spaces  after  the  air  has  been  breathed  by  people  is 
0.06%. 

Carbonic  acid  is  the  product  of  organic  decompo- 
sition and  oxidation,  and  is  indispensable  to  vegetable 
life,  which  absorbs  it  and  exhales  oxygen.  The  car- 
bonic acid  content  of  air  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  air 
impurity. 

Ozone,  argon,  and  ammonia  are  found  in  very  minute 
quantities,  and  their  functions  are  not  as  yet  definitely 
determined. 

Humidity,  Temperature,  and  Pressure. — The  at- 
mosphere is  never  entirely  dry,  there  always  being  a 
relative  amount  of  aqueous  vapor,  varying  from  30% 
to  100%,  or  saturation.  The  relative  proportions  of 
aqueous  vapor  determine  the  degree  of  humidity, 
65-75%  being  regarded  as  the  most  beneficial  to 
health.  The  warmth  of  the  air  is  derived  from  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  according  to  the  intensity  of  wdiich  the  tem- 
perature varies.  The  atmosphere  extends  from  the 
surface  to  an  indefinite  height,  and,  according  to  the 
law"  of  gravitation,  presses  downward  with  a  certain 
force.  This  force,  called  atmospheric  pressure,  varies 
according  to  the  temperature  and  relative  humidity  of 
the  air,  a  warmer  air  being  lighter,  a  cold  air  heavier, 
and  a  dry  air  weighing  less  than  a  damp  air.  These 
differences  in  relative  pressure,  temperature,  and  hu- 


AIR 


15 


midity  produce  the  constant  motion  of  the  air,  called 
"  wind.?' 

'Impurities  in  Air.  — The  atmosphere  surrounds  our 
earth,  participates  in  its  life,  and  is  charged  with  debris 
and  particles  of  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  life  of 
the  earth.  By  the  action  of  gravitation  and  winds  the 
suspended  matters  and  gases  are  scattered  and  diffused, 
fall  to  the  earth  again,  and  are  there  digested,  worked 
over,  and  oxidized  in  the  great  laboratory  of  I^ature. 

The  impurities  in  air,  according  to  their  substance 
and  character,  are  as  follows :  Mineral,  Vegetable,  Ani- 
mal, Bacteria,  and  Gases. 

The  mineral  substances  found  in  the  air  are  the  parti- 
cles of  soil,  such  as  silica,  sand,  chalk,  iron,  lead,  arsenic, 
zinc,  copper,  etc. 

The  vegetable  substances  are  carbon,  fibres  and  cells, 
starch,  grains,  cotton,  moulds,  fungi,  pollen,  etc. 

The  animal  substances  are  either  the  debris  from  the 
various  living  and  dead  animals,  or  the  microscopic  ani- 
malculi  suspended  in  the  air.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  animal  particles  found  in  air :  wool,  silk  fibres, 
human  hair,  epithelial  cells,  fragments  of  insects,  pus 
cells,  molecular  debris,  and  the  various  micro-organ- 
isms. 

The  bacteria  in  the  air  are  either  saprophytic  or 
pathogenic,  and  their  number  varies  from  0  in  pure 
mountain  air  to  79,000  per  cubic  metre  in  the  air  of 
Paris. 

The  gaseous  impurities  of  the  air  are  the  various 
compounds  of  carbon  (carbon  monoxide  and  dioxide), 
of  hydrogen  (sulphuretted  and  carburetted),  of  nitro- 


16 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


gen  (ammonia,  ammonia  acetate,  sulphide,  nitrous  and 
nitiic  acids),  of  snlphur,  etc. 

Impurities  According  to  their  Source. — According 
to  their  sonrce  the  impurities  in  the  air  are : 

Impurities  due  to  respiration. 

Impurities  due  to  organic  decomposition. 

Impurities  due  to  combustion. 

Impurities  due  to  various  trades. 

Impurities  Due  to  Respiration. — The  expired  air 
from  the  lungs  of  man  or  beast  is  poorer  in  oxygen 
bv  about  4%,  and  richer  in  COo  bv  a  similar  quantity — 
4%.  This  increase  in  the  CO2  is  not  of  much  import- 
ance when  in  the  free  air,  for  any  excess  of  one  gas  is 
speedily  reduced;  in  confined  spaces,  however,  the  air 
which  has  been  expired  is  soon  laden  with  CO2  until 
it  becomes  unfit  for  further  respiration.  Besides  the 
increased  CO2,  respired  air  contains  the  organic  ex- 
halations which  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  increase  of 
CO2.  This  organic  matter,  which  vitiates  the  air  and 
renders  it  malodorous  and  offensive,  is  a  product  of 
nitrogenous  animal  decomposition;  it  yields  ammonia, 
darkens  sulphuric  acid,  decolorizes  potassium  perman- 
ganate, and  is,  together  with  the  decrease  of  O  and  in- 
crease of  CO2,  the  cause  of  the  poisonous  action  which 
imventilated  rooms  and  places  have  upon  people. 
That  a  room  in  which  the  respired  air  is  unchanged  is 
directly  poisonous,  has  been  proved  over  and  over 
again;  and  the  oft-quoted  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  in 
which  123  out  of  146  people  died  within  10  hours,  is 
cited  as  an  example. 

Organic  Decomposition  is  a  prolific  source  of  air  im- 


AIR. 


11 


purity.  Of  the  organic  human  effluvia,  we  have  already 
spoken;  air  is,  however,  largely  vitiated  by  the  emana- 
tion of  the  various  decomposition  products  of  organic 
matter,  e.g.,  the  effete  products  of  man  and  beast,  such 
as  urine,  sewage,  and  other  excrementitious  matter. 
The  atmosphere  of  cities  is  constantly  contaminated 
with  the  effluvia  from  soil,  ground-air,  sewer-gases, 
etc. 

Conibustion  is  also  a  very  important  source  of  air 
vitiation.  The  products  of  coal  and  wood  combustion 
are  carbon  monoxide  and  dioxide,  CO  and  CO2,  various 
sulphur  compounds,  and  a  large  quantity  of  soot  and 
tarry  matter.  Illumination  by  oil,  candles,  gas,  etc., 
is  also  a  source  of  various  impurities.  Every  cubic  foot 
of  gas  burnt  per  hour  vitiates  the  air  as  much  as  would 
be  rendered  impure  by  one  individual.  The  electric 
light  is  the  only  illuminant  that  does  not  add  impurities 
to  the  air. 

In  certain  trades  a  large  amount  of  dust  and  also  of 
various  chemical  substances  and  gases  are  produced 
which  render  the  air  in  and  about  said  places  impure. 

Influence  of  Air  on  Health. — That  the  air,  without 
which  we  cannot  live  more  than  a  few  minutes,  has  a 
great  influence  on  the  health  of  man,  is  self-evident. 
The  physical  condition  of  the  air,  the  temperature, 
pressure,  humidity,  motion,  relative  content  of  one  or 
the  other  of  its  constituents,  the  degree  of  vitiation,  and 
the  impurities  in  the  air,  all  have  a  marked  influence  on 
the  health,  life,  and  longevity  of  man. 

Diseases  Due  to  Impure  Air. — Impure  air  has  a  di- 
rectly bad  effect  on  health,  and  is  capable  of  producing 


18 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


certain  diseases.  These  diseases  are  due  to  the  direct 
or  indirect  effects  of  the  various  impurities  found  in 
the  air;  impurities  which  have  a  very  detrimental  influ- 
ence upon  the  respiratory,  digestive,  and  general  func- 
tions of  the  body. 

CO2  when  habitually  inhaled  in  small  amounts  causes 
malaise,  headache,  debility;  in  large  amounts  it  is  a 
virulent  poison. 

The  products  of  organic  decomposition,  sewer-gas, 
and  the  many  pathogenic  bacteria  which  abound  and 
multiply  in  decomposed  organic  matter,  are  all  capable 
of  producing  various  infectious  and  other  diseases. 

Carbon  monoxide  and  the  other  products  of  com- 
bustion and  illumination  cause,  when  constantly  in- 
haled, various  respiratory  and  constitutional  diseases, 
and  may  produce  death  when  inhaled  in  large  amounts. 

The  mechanical  and  chemical  impurities  which  are 
produced  during  and  in  the  process  of  the  various  man- 
ufactures and  trades  are  the  direct  cause  of  many  of  the 
diseases  of  those  employed  in  those  trades.  Altogether 
we  can  truthfully  say  that  there  is  hardly  a  disease 
which  is  not  directly  or  indirectly  caused  by  the  impuri- 
ties found  in  the  air. 


CHAPTER  III. 


VENTILATIOlSr. 

Definition. — The  air  within  an  uninhabited  room 
does  not  differ  from  that  ^vithout.  If  the  room  is  occu- 
pied by  one  or  more  individuals,  however,  then  the  air 
in  the  room  soon  deteriorates,  until  the  impurities 
therein  reach  a  certain  degree  incompatible  with  health. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  with  each  breath  a  certain 
quantity  of  CO 2,  organic  impurities,  and  aqueous  vapor 
is  exhaled;  and  these  products  of  respiration  soon  sur- 
charge the  air  until  it  is  rendered  impure  and  unfit  for 
breathing.  In  order  to  render  the  air  pure  in  such  a 
room,  and  make  life  possible,  it  is  necessary  to  change 
the  air  by  withdrawing  the  impure,  and  substituting 
pure  air  from  the  outside.    This  is  ventilation. 

Ventilation,  therefore,  is  the  maintenance  of  the  air 
in  a  confined  space  in  a  condition  conducive  to  health; 
in  other  words,  ventilation  is  the  replacing  of  the  im- 
pure air  in  a  confined  space  by  pure  air  from  the  out- 
side.'' 

Quantity  of  Air  Required. — What  do  we  regard  as 
impure  air?  What  is  the  index  of  impurity?  How 
much  air  is  required  to  render  pure  an  air  in  a  given 
space,  in  a  given  time,  for  a  given  number  of  people? 

19 


20 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


How  often  can  the  change  be  safely  made,  and  how? 
These  are  the  problems  of  ventilation. 

An  increase  in  the  quantity  of  CO2,  and  a  propor- 
tionate increase  of  organic  impurities,  are  the  results 
of  respiratory  vitiation  of  the  air;  and  it  has  been 
agreed  to  regard  the  relative  quantity  of  COg  as  the 
standard  of  impurity,  its  increase  serving  as  an  index 
of  the  condition  of  the  air.  We  have  seen  that  the 
normal  quantity  of  CO2  in  the  air  is  0.04%,  or  4  vol- 
umes in  10,000;  and  it  has  been  determined  that  when- 
ever the  CO2  reaches  0.06%,  or  6  parts  per  10,000,  the 
maximum  of  air  vitiation  is  reached — a  point  beyond 
which  the  breathing  of  the  air  becomes  dangerous  to 
health. 

We  therefore  know  that  an  increase  of  2  volumes 
of  CO2  in  10,000  of  air  constitutes  the  maximum 
of  admissible  impurity;  the  difference  between  0.04% 
and  0.06%.  JSTow,  a  healthy  average  adult  at  rest 
exhales  in  one  hour  0.6  cubic  foot  of  CO2.  Having 
determined  these  two  factors — the  amount  of  CO2  ex- 
haled in  one  hour  and  the  maximum  of  admissible  im- 
purity— we  can  find  by  dividing  0.6  by  0.0002  (or  0.02 
per  cent.)  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  needed  for 
one  hour,  =  3000. 

Therefore,  a  room  with  a  space  of  3000  cubic  feet, 
occupied  by  one  average  adult  at  rest,  will  not  reach  its 
maximum  of  impurity  (that  is,  the  air  in  such  a  room 
will  not  be  in  need  of  a  change)  before  one  hour  has 
elapsed. 

The  relative  quantity  of  fresh  air  needed  will  differ 
for  adults  at  work  and  at  rest,  for  children^^  women^  etc. ; 


VENTILATION, 


21 


it  will  also  differ  according  to  the  illuminant  employed, 
whether  oil,  candle,  gas,  etc. — an  ordinary  3-foot  gas- 
burner  requiring  1800  cubic  feet  of  air  in  one  hour. 

It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  have  3000  cubic  feet 
of  space  for  each  individual  in  a  room,  for  the  air  in  the 
latter  can  safely  be  changed  at  least  three  times  within 
one  hour,  thus  reducing  the  air-space  needed  to  about 
1000  cubic  feet.  This  change  of  air  or  ventilation  of  a 
room  can  be  accomplished  by  mechanical  means  oftener 
than  three  times  in  an  hour,  but  a  natural  change  of 
more  than  three  times  in  an  hour  will  ordinarily  create 
too  strong  a  current  of  air,  and  may  c-ause  draughts  and 
chills  dangerous  to  health. 

In  determining  the  cubic  space  needed,  the  height  of 
the  room  as  well  as  the  floor-space  must  be  taken  into 
consideration.  As  a  rule  the  height  of  a  room  ought  to 
be  about  one-third  of  the  cubic  space,  and  in  ordinary 
rooms  should  not  exceed  12  feet,  as  a  height  beyond 
that  is  of  very  little  advantage. 

Forces  of  Ventilation. — We  now  come  to  the  ques- 
tion of  the  various  modes  by  which  change  in  the  air  of 
a  room  is  possible.  Ventilation  is  natural  or  artificial 
according  to  whether  artificial  or  mechanical  devices  are 
or  are  not  used.  Xatural  ventilation  is  only  possible 
because  our  buildings  and  houses,  their  material  and 
construction,  are  such  that  numerous  apertures  and 
crevices  are  left  for  air  to  come  in;  for  it  is  evident  that 
if  a  room  were  hermetically  air-tight,  no  ventilation 
would  be  possible. 

The  properties  of  air  which  render  both  natural 
and  artificial  ventilation  possible  aro  diffusion,  motion, 


22 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


and  gravity.  These  three  forces  are  the  natural  agents 
of  ventilation. 

There  is  a  constant  diffusion  of  gases  taMng  place  in 
the  air;  this  diffusion  takes  place  even  through  stone 
walls  and  through  brick.  The  more  porous  the  material 
of  which  the  building  is  constructed,  the  more  readily 
does  diffusion  take  place.  Dampness,  plastering,  paint- 
ing, and  papering  of  walls  diminish  diffusion,  however. 

The  second  force  in  ventilation  is  the  motion  of  air, 
or  winds.  This  is  the  most  powerful  agent  of  ventila- 
tion, for  even  a  slight,  imperceptible  wind  travelling 
about  two  miles  an  hour  is  capable,  when  the  windows 
and  doors  of  a  room  are  open,  of  changing  the  air  of 
a  room  528  times  in  one  hour.  Air  passes  also  through 
brick  and  stone  walls.  The  objections  to  winds  as  a 
sole  mode  of  ventilation  are  their  inconstancy  and  irreg- 
!ularity.  When  the  wind  is  very  slight,  its  ventilating 
influence  is  very  small;  on  the  other  hand,  when  the 
wind  is  strong,  it  cannot  be  utilized  as  a  means  of  ven- 
tilation on  account  of  the  air-currents  being  too  strong 
and  capable  of  exerting  deleterious  effects  on  health. 

The  third,  the  most  constant  and  reliable,  and,  in 
fact,  principal  agent  of  ventilation,  is  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  air,  and  the  variations  in  the  gravity  and 
consequent  pressure  which  are  results  of  the  variations 
in  temperature,  humidity,  etc.  Whenever  air  is 
warmer  in  one  place  than  in  another,  the  warmer  air 
being  lighter  and  the  colder  air  outside  being  heavier, 
the  latter  exerts  pressure  upon  the  air  in  the  room, 
causing  the  lighter  air  in  the  room  to  escape  and  be  dis- 
placed by  the  heavier  air  from  the  outside,  thus  chang- 


VENTILATION. 


23 


ing  tlie  air  in  the  room.  This  mode  of  ventilation  is 
always  constant  and  at  work,  as  the  very  presence  of 
living  beings  in  the  room  warms  the  air  therein,  thus 
causing  a  difference  from  the  outside  air  and  effecting 
change  of  air  from  the  outside  to  the  inside  of  the 
room. 

Methods  of  Ventilation.  — The  application  of  these 
principles  of  ventilation  is  said  to  be  accomplished  in  a 
natural  or  an  artificial  way,  according  as  mechanical 
means  to  utilize  the  forces  and  properties  of  air  are  used 
or  not.  But  in  reality  natural  ventilation  can  hardly  be 
said  to  exist,  since  dwellings  are  so  constructed  as  to 
guard  against  exposure  and  changes  of  temperature, 
and  are  usually  equipped  with  numerous  appliances  for 
promoting  change  of  air.  Windows,  doors,  fire-places, 
chimneys,  shafts,  courts,  etc.,  are  all  artificial  methods 
of  securing  ventilation,  although  wx  usually  regard 
them  as  means  of  natural  ventilation. 

Natural  Ventilation. — The  means  employed  for  ap- 
plying the  properties  or  diffusion  are  the  materials  of 
construction.  A  porous  material  being  favorable  for 
diffusion,  some  such  material  is  placed  in  several  places 
within  the  wall,  thus  favoring  change  of  air.  Imperfect 
carpenter-work  is  also  a  help,  as  the  cracks  and  openings 
left  are  favorable  for  the  escape  and  entrance  of  air. 

Wind,  or  the  motion  of  air,  is  utilized  either  directly, 
through  windows,  doors,  and  other  openings;  or  indi- 
rectly, by  producing  a  partial  vacuum  in  passing  over 
chimneys  and  shafts,  causing  suction  of  the  air  in  them 
and  the  consequent  withdrawal  of  the  air  from  the 
rooms. 


24 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


The  opening  of  windows  and  doors  is  possible  only 
in  warm  "weather;  and  as  ventilation  becomes  a  problem 
only  in  temperate  and  cold  weather,  the  opening  of 
windows  and  doors  cannot  very  well  be  utilized  without 
causing  colds,  etc.  Various  methods  have  therefore 
been  proposed  for  using  windows  for  the  purposes  of 
ventilation  without  producing  forcible  currents  of  air. 


Fig.  3.— Hinkes  Bird  Window.  (Taylor.) 

The  part  of  the  mndow  best  fitted  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  air  is  the  space  between  the  two  sashes,  where 
they  meet.  The  ingress  of  air  is  made  possible  whenever 
the  lower  sa^^li  is  raised  or  the  upper  one  is  lowered. 


YENTILATIOX, 


25 


lu  order  to  prevent  cold  air  from  without  entering 
tlirongii  the  openings  thus  made,  it  has  been  proposed 
by  Hinkes  Bird  to  fit  a  block  of  wood  in  the  lower  open- 
ing; or  else,  as  in  Dr.  Keen's  arrangement,  a  piece  of 
paper  or  cloth  is  used  to  cover  the  space  left  by  the  lift- 
ing or  lowering  of  either  or  both  sashes.  Louvers  or 
inclined  panes  or  parts  of  these  may  also  be  used.  Parts 
or  entire  window-panes  are  sometimes  wholly  removed 
and  replaced  by  tubes  or  perforated  pieces  of  zinc,  so 
that  air  may  come  in  through  the  apertures.  Again, 


Fig.  4.  (Knight.) 

apertures  for  inlets  and  outlets  may  be  made  di- 
rectly in  the  walls  of  the  rooms.  These  openings 
are  filled  in  with  porous  bricks  or  with  specially 
made  bricks  (like  Ellison's  conical  bricks),  or  boxes 
provided  with  several  openings.  A  very  useful  ap- 
paratus of  this  kind  is  the  so-called  Sherringham 
valve,  which  consists  of  an  iron  box  fitted  into  the  wall, 
the  front  of  the  box  facing  the  room  having  an  iron 
valve  hinged  along  its  lower  edge,  and  so  constructed 


26 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


that  it  can  be  opened  or  be  closed  at  will  to  let  a  cur- 
rent of  air  pass  upward.    Another  very  good  appa- 


iiiiiiininii 

|l!i|i!giiiii!||l|iiilHllllill 

1 

iiiiBil 

■iiiiiiiiir 

II  iiill 

1 

Fig.  5,— Sherringham  Valve.  (Taylor.) 

ratus  of  this  kind  is  the  Tobin  ventilator,  consisting  of 
horizontal  tubes  let  through  the  walls,  the  outer  ends 


Fig.  6.  (Knight.) 


open  to  the  air,  but  the  inner  ends  projecting  into  the 
room,  where  they  are  joined  by  vertical  tubes  carried 
up  5  feet  or  more  from  the  floor,  thus  allowing  the  out- 
side air  to  enter  upwardly  into  the  room.    This  plan  is 


VENTILATION 


also  adaj^ted  for  filtering  and  cleaiiiiig  the  incoming  air 
by  placing  cloth  or  other  material  across  the  hmien  of 
the  horizontal  tubes  to  intercept  dust,  etc.  McKinnell's 
ventilator  is  also  a  useful  method  of  ventilation,  espe- 
cially of  underground  rooms. 

To  assist  the  action  of  winds  over  the  tops  of  shafts 


Fig.  7.— McKinnell's  Ventilator.  (Taylor.) 

and  chimneys,  various  cowls  have  been  devised.  These 
cowls  are  arranged  so  as  to  help  aspirate  the  air  from 
the  tubes  and  chimneys,  and  prevent  a  down-draught. 

The  same  inlets  and  outlets  which  are  made  to' utilize 
winds  may  also  be  used  for  the  ventilation  effected  by 
the  motion  of  air  due  to  difference  in  the  specific  gravity 
of  outside  and  inside  air.  Any  artificial  warming  of  the 
air  in  the  room,  whether  by  illuminants  or  by  the  vari- 
ous methods  of  heating  rooms,  will  aid  in  ventilating 
it,  the  chimneys  acting  as  powerful  means  of  removal 
for  the  warmer  air.  Various  methods  have  also  been 
proposed  for  utilizing  the  chimney,  even  when  no 


pmmm 


28 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


stoves,  etc.,  are  connected  with  it,  bj  placing  a  gaslight 
within  the  chimney  to  cause  an  up-draught  and  conse- 
quent aspiration  of  the  air  of  the  room  through  it. 

The  question  of  the  number,  relative  size,  and  posi- 
tion of  the  inlets  and  outlets  is  a  very  important  one, 


but  we  can  here  give  only  an  epitome  of  the  require- 
ments. 

The  inlet  and  outlet  openings  should  be  about  24 
inches  square  per  head.  Inlet  openings  should  be  short, 
easily  cleaned,  sufficient  in  number  to  insure  a  proper 
distribution  of  air;  should  be  protected  from  heat,  pro- 
vided with  valves  so  as  to  regulate  the  inflow  of  air,  and, 
if  possible,  should  be  placed  so  as  to  allow  the  air  pass- 
ing through  them  to  be  w^armed  before  entering  the 
room.  Outlet  openings  should  be  placed  near  the  ceil- 
ing, should  be  straight  and  smooth,  and,  if  possible, 
should  be  heated  so  as  to  make  the  air  therein  warmer, 
thus  preventing  a  down-draught,  as  is  frequently  the 
case  when  the  outlets  become  inlets. 


^^^^^^ 


Fig.  8.  (Knight.) 


VENTILATION. 


29 


Artificial  Ventilation. — Artificial  ventilation  is  ac- 
complished either  by  aspirating  the  air  from  the  build- 
ing, known  as  the  vacuum  or  extraction  method,  or  by 
forcing  into  the  building  air  from  without;  this  is 
known  as  the  plenum  or  propulsion  method. 

The  extraction  of  the  air  in  a  building  is  done  by 


FAN  EXTRACTING  AND  PROPELLING  AIR 

Fig.  9.— Cowl  Ventilators.  (Kkight.) 


means  of  heat,  by  warming  the  air  in  chimneys  or  spe- 
cial tubes,  or  by  mechanical  means  with  screws  or  fans 
run  by  steam  or  electricity;  these  screws  or  fans  revolve 
and  aspirate  the  air  of  the  rooms,  and  thus  cause  pure 
air  to  enter. 

The  propelling  method  of  ventilation  is  carried  out 
by  mechanical  means  only,  air  being  forced  in  from  the 
outside  by  fans,  screws,  bellows,  etc. 


30 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


Artificial  ventilation  is  applicable  only  where  a  large 
volume  of  air  is  needed,  and  for  large  spaces,  such  as 
theatres,  churches,  lecture-rooms,  etc.    Tor  the  ordi- 


Fm.  10. 


nary  building  the  expense  for  mechanical  contrivances 
is  too  high. 

On  the  whole,  ventilation  v^dthout  complex  and  cum- 
bersome mechanisms  is  to  be  preferred. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


WARMING. 

Ventilation  and  Heating. — The  subject  of  the  heat- 
ing of  our  rooms  and  houses  is  very  closely  allied  to 
that  of  ventilation,  not  only  because  both  are  a  special 
necessity  at  the  same  time  of  the  year,  but  also  because 
we  cannot  heat  a  room  without  at  the  same  time  having 
to  ventilate  it,  by  providing  an  egress  for  the  products 
of  combustion  and  introducing  fresh  air  to  replace  the 
vitiated. 

Need  of  Heating. — In  a  large  part  of  the  country, 
and  during  the  greater  period  of  the  year,  some  mode 
of  artificially  heating  rooms  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
our  comfort  and  health.  The  temperature  of  the  body 
is  98°  to  99°  r._,  and  there  is  a  constant  radiation  of 
heat  due  to  the  cooling  of  the  body  surface.  If  the 
external  temperature  is  very  much  below  that  of  the 
body,  and  if  the  low  temperature  is  prolonged,  the  radi- 
ation of  heat  from  the  body  is  too  rapid,  and  colds, 
pneumonia,  etc.,  result.  The  temperature  essential  for 
the  individual  varies  according  to  age,  constitution, 
health,  environment,  occupation,  etc.  A  child,  a  sick 
person,  or  one  at  rest  requires  a  relatively  higher  temper- 
ature than  a  healthy  adult  at  w^ork.    The  mean  tem- 

31 


82 


nANDBOOK  OJY  S ANITA  TIOK 


peratiirc  of  u  room  most  conducive  to  the  health  of  the 
average  pei'-fcion  is  from  65°  to  75°  F. 

The  Three  Methods  of  Heating. — The  heating  of  a 
room  can  be  accomplished  either  directly  by  the  rays  of 
the  snn  or  processes  of  combustion.  We  thus  receive 
radiant  heat^  exemplified  by  that  of  open  fires  and 
grates. 

Or,  the  heating  of  places  can  be  accomplished  by 
the  heat  of  combustion  being  conducted  through  cer- 
tain materials,  like  brick  walls,  tile,  stone,  and  also 
iron;  this  is  conductive  heat,  as  afforded  by  stoves, 
etc. 

Or,  the  heat  is  conveyed  by  means  of  air,  water,  or 
steam  from  one  place  to  another,  as  in  the  hot-water, 
hot-air,  and  steam  systems  of  heating;  this  we  call  con- 
vected  heat. 

There  is  no  strict  line  of  demarcation  differentiating 
the  three  methods  of  heating,  as  it  is  possible  that  a  ra- 
diant heat  may  at  the  same  time  be  conductive  as  well 
as  convective — as  is  the  case  in  the  Galton  fire-place, 
etc. 

Materials  of  Combustion. — The  materials  of  com- 
bustion are  air,  wood,  coal,  oil,  and  gas.  Air  is  indis- 
pensable, for,  without  oxygen,  there  can  be  no  combus- 
tion. Wood  is  used  in  many  places,  but  is  too  bulky 
and  expensive.  Oil  is  rarely  used  as  a  material  of  com- 
bustion, its  principal  use  being  for  illumination.  Coal 
is  the  best  and  cheapest  material  for  combustion.  The 
chief  objection  against  its  use  is  the  production  of 
smoke,  soot,  and  of  various  gases,  as  CO,  CO2,  etc. 
Gas  is  a  very  good,  in  fact,  the  best  material  for  heating, 


WABMIKG. 


33 


especially  if,  when  used,  it  is  connected  with  chimneys; 
otherwise  it  is  objectionable,  as  it  burns  up  too  much 
air,  vitiates  the  atmosphere,  and  the  products  of  com- 
bustion are  deleterious;  it  is  also  quite  expensive. 
The  ideal  means  of  heating  is  electricity. 

Chimneys. — All  materials  used  for  combustion  yield 
products  more  or  less  injurious  to  health.  Every  sys- 
tem of  artificially  heating  houses  must  therefore  have 
not  only  means  of  introducing  fresh  air  to  aid  in  the 
burning  up  of  the  materials,  but  also  an  outlet  for  the 
vitiated,  warmed  air,  partly  charged  with  the  products 
of  combustion.  These  outlets  are  provided  by  chim- 
neys. Chimneys  are  hollow^  tubes  or  shafts  built  of 
brick  and  lined  with  earthen  pipes  or  other  mate- 
rial inside.  These  tubes  begin  at  the  lowest  fire- 
place or  connection,  and  are  carried  up  several  feet 
above  the  roof.  The  thickness  of  a  chimney  is  from 
4  to  9  inches;  the  shape  square,  rectangular,  or  prefer- 
ably circular.  The  diameter  of  the  chimney  depends 
upon  the  size  of  the  house,  the  number  of  fire-connec- 
tions, etc.  It  should  be  neither  too  small  nor  too  large. 
Square  chimneys  should  be  12  to  16  inches  square;  cir- 
cular ones  from  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter  for  each  fire- 
connection.  The  chimney  consists  of  a  shaft ^  or  vertical 
tube,  and  cowls  placed  over  chimneys  on  the  roof  to 
prevent  down.-draughts  and  the  falling  in  of  foreign 
bodies.  That  part  of  the  chimney  opening  into  the  fire- 
place is  called  the  throat. 

Smoky  Chimneys. — A  very  frequent  cause  of 
complaint  in  a  great  many  houses  is  the  so-called  smoky 
chimney  ";  this  is  the  case  when  smoke  and  coal-gas  es- 


34 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


cape,  from  the  chimney  and  enter  the  living  rooms. 
The  principal  canses  of  this  nuisance  are : 

1)  A  too  wide  or  too  narrow  diameter  of  the  shafts. 
A  shaft  which  is  too  narrow  does  not  let  all  the  smoke 
escape ;  one  which  is  too  wide  lets  the  smoke  go  np  only 
in  a  part  of  its  diameter,  and  when  the  smoke  meets  a 
counter-current  of  cold  air  it  is  liable  to  be  forced  back 
into  the  rooms. 

2)  The  throat  of  the  chimney  may  be  too  wide,  and 
will  hold  cold  air,  preventing  the  warming  of  the  air  in 
the  chimneys  and  the  consequent  np-dranght. 

3)  The  cowls  may  be  too  low  or  too  tight,  preventing 
the  escape  of  the  smoke. 

4)  The  brickwork  of  the  chimney,  may  be  loose, 
badly  constructed,  or  broken  into  by  nails,  etc.,  thus 
allowing  smoke  to  escape  therefrom. 

5)  The  supply  of  air  may  be  deficient,  as  when  all 
doors  and  windows  are  tightly  closed. 

6)  The  chimney  may  be  obstructed  by  soot  or  some 
foreign  material. 

7)  The  mnd  above  the  house  may  be  so  strong  that 
its  pressure  will  cause  the  smoke  from  the  chimney  to 
be  forced  back. 

8)  If  two  chimneys  rise  together  from  the  same 
house,  and  one  is  shorter  than  the  other,  the  draught  of 
the  longer  chimney  may  cause  an  inversion  of  the  cur- 
rent of  air  in  the  lower  chimney. 

9)  Wet  fuel  when  used  will  cause  smoke  by  its  in- 
complete combustion. 

10)  A  chimney  without  a  fire  may  suck  dow  the 
smoke  from  a  neighboring  chimney;  or,  if  two  fire- 


WARMING, 


35 


places  in  different  rooms  are  connected  with  the  same 
chimney,  the  smoke  from  one  room  may  be  drawn  into 
the  other. 

Methods  of  Heating.  Open  Fire-places  and  Grates. 

— Open  fire-places  and  fires  in  grates  connected  with 
chimneys,  and  using  coal,  wood,  or  gas,  are  very  com- 
fortable; nevertheless  there  are  weighty  objections  to 
them.  Firstly,  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  heat  of  the 
material  burning  is  utilized,  only  about  12%  being 
radiated  into  the  room,  the  rest  going  up  the  chim- 
ney. Secondly,  the  heat  of  grates  and  fire-places  is  only 
local,  being  near  the  fires  and  warming  only  that  part 
of  the  person  exposed  to  it,  leaving  the  other  parts  of 
the  room  and  person  cold.  Thirdly,  the  burning  of 
open  fires  necessitates  a  great  supply  of  air,  and  causes 
powerful  draughts. 

The  open  fire-place  can,  however,  be  greatly  im- 
proved by  surrounding  its  back  and  sides  by  an  air- 
space, in  which  air  can  be  warmed  and  conveyed  into 
the  upper  part  of  the  room;  and  if  a  special  air-inlet 
is  provided  for  supplying  the  fire  with  fresh  air  to  be 
warmed,  we  get  a  very  valuable  means  of  heating. 
These  principles  are  embodied  in  the  Franklin  and  Gal- 
ton  grates.  A  great  many  other  grates  have  been  sug- 
gested, and  put  on  the  market,  but  the  principal  objec- 
tion to  them  is  their  complexity  and  expense,  making 
their  use  a  luxury  not  attainable  by  the  masses. 

Stoves.  — Stoves  are  closed  receptacles  in  which  fuel 
is  burned,  and  the  heat  produced  is  radiated  towards  the 
persons,  etc.,  near  them,  and  also  conducted  through 
the  iron  or  other  materials  of  which  the  stoves  are  made 


36 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


to  surrounding  objects.  In  stoves  75^  of  the  fuel 
burned  is  utilized.  They  are  made  of  brick,  tile,  and 
cast  or  wrouglit  iron. 

Brick  stoves,  and  stoves  made  of  tile,  are  extensively 
used  in  some  European  countries,  as  Eussia,  Germany, 


Fig.  11.— Galton  Grate.  (Tract.) 


Sweden,  etc.;  tliey  are  made  of  slow-conducting  mate- 
rial, and  give  a  very  equable,  efficient,  and  cheap  heat, 
although  their  ventilating  power  is  very  small. 

Iron  is  used  very  extensively  because  it  is  a  very 
good  conductor  of  heat,  and  can  be  made  into  very  con- 
venient forms.  Iron  stoves,  however,  are  liable  to  be- 
come superheated,  dry  up,  and  sometimes  burn  the  air 


WARMING. 


37 


around  them,  and  produce  certain  deleterious  gases 
during  combustion.  When  the  fire  is  confined  in  a  clay 
fire-box,  and  the  stove  is  not  overheated,  a  good  supply 
of  fresh  air  being  provided  and  a  vessel  of  water  placed 


Fig.  12.— Hot-aik  Fuknace. 


on  the  stove  to  reduce  the  dryness  of  the  air,  iron  stoves 
are  quite  efficient. 

Hot-air  Warming.— In  small  houses  the  warming  of 
the  various  rooms  and  halls  can  be  accomplished  by 


3S 


HANDBOOK  ON  8ANITATI0;N. 


placing  the  stove  or  furnace  in  the  cellar,  heating  a 
large  quantity  of  air  and  conveying  it  through  proper 
tubes  to  the  rooms  and  places  to  be  warmed.  The 
points  to  be  observed  in  a  proper  and  efficient  hot-air 
heating  system  are  the  following: 

1)  The  furnace  must  be  of  a  proper  size  in  propor- 
tion to  the  area  of  space  to  be  warmed.  2)  The  joints 
and  parts  of  the  furnace  must  be  gas-tight.  3)  The 
furnace  should  be  placed  on  the  cold  side  of  the  house, 
and  provision  made  to  prevent  cellar-air  from  being 
drawn  up  into  the  cold-air  box  of  the  furnace.  4)  The 
air  for  the  supply  of  the  furnace  must  be  gotten  from 
outside,  and  the  source  must  be  pure,  above  the  ground- 
level,  and  free  from  contamination  of  any  kind.  5) 
The  cold-air  box  and  ducts  must  be  clean,  protected 
against  the  entrance  of  vermin,  etc.,  and  easily  cleaned. 
6)  The  air  should  not  be  overheated.  7)  The  hot- 
air  flues  or  tubes  must  be  short,  direct,  circular,  and 
covered  with  asbestos  or  some  other  non-conducting 
material. 

Hot-water  System. — The  principles  of  hot-water 
heating  are  very  sijnple.  Given  a  circuit  of  pipe  filled 
with  water,  on  heating  the  lower  part  of  the  circuit, 
the  water,  becoming  warmer,  will  rise,  circulate,  and 
heat  the  pi])es  in  which  it  is  contained,  thus  w^arm- 
ing  the  air  in  contact  with  the  pipes.  The  lower 
part  of  the  circuit  of  pipe  begins  in  the  furnace  or 
heater,  and  the  other  parts  of  the  circuit  are  conducted 
through  the  various  rooms  and  halls  throughout  the 
house  to  tlie  uppermost  story.  The  pipes  need  not  be 
straight  all  through;  hence,  to  secure  a  larger  area  for 


WARMING. 


39 


lieating,  they  are  convoluted  within  the  furnace,  and 
also  in  the  rooms,  where  the  convoluted  pipes  are  called 
radiators.  The  water  may  be  warmed  by  the  low-  or 
high-pressure  system;  in  the  latter  a  pipe  of  small 
diameter  can  be  employed,  while  in  the  former  pipes  of 
a  large  diameter  Avill  be  required.  The  character,  etc., 
of  the  boilers,  furnace,  pipes,  etc.,  cannot  be  gone  into 
here. 

Steam- heating  System. — The  principle  of  steam 
heating  does  not  differ  from  that  of  the  hot-water  sys- 
tem. Here  the  pressure  is  greater  and  steam  is  em- 
ployed instead  of  Avater.  The  steam  gives  a  greater  de- 
gree of  heat,  but  the  pipes  must  be  stronger  and  able 
to  withstand  the  pressure.  There  are  also  combinations 
of  steam  and  hot-water  heating.  For  large  houses  either 
steam  or  hot-water  heating  is  the  best  means  of  warm- 
ing, and,  if  properly  constructed  and  cared  for,  quite 
healthy. 


CHAPTEE  V. 


WATER 

Composition. — Water  is  a  compound  of  two  ele- 
ments :  Hydrogen  and  Oxvgen,  united  in  the  propor- 
tion of  2  volumes  of  the  former  to  1  of  the  latter;  its 
chemical  formula  is  PToO. 

Quantity  Required. — Owing  to  the  many  uses  to 
which  water  is  put,  a  large  quantity  is  needed.  The 
quantity  varies  according  to  the  people  and  their  de- 
gree of  civilization,  according  to  place,  supply,  etc. 
The  average  quantity  of  water  needed  for  all  purposes 
has  been  estimated  to  be  about  50  gallons  per  head 
per  day.  Most  of  the  cities  furnish  a  larger  supply, 
however. 

Characteristics  and  Quality  of  Water. — Water  for 
drinking  purposes  must  be  clear,  colorless,  and  with- 
out taste  or  odor;  it  should  be  aerated  and  free 
from  impurities.  Water  is  a  powerful  solvent,  and 
therefore,  in  a  state  of  nature,  contains  a  great  number 
of  elements,  compounds,  and  gases  in  solution  as  well 
as  in  suspension.  The  taste  of  water  depends  upon  its 
source,  character,  substances  present,  gases,  etc.  When 
water  contains  a  large  quantity  of  calcium  bicarbonate 
and  magnesium  salts,  it  is  called  hard.    Soft  water  is 

40 


WATER. 


41 


better  than  hard  for  washing  and  cooking  purposes,  as 
well  as  for  production  of  steam,  hard  water  causing 
much  trouble  by  forming  incrustations  within  pipes  and 
boilers.  E^ot  every  palatable  water  is  wholesome,  as 
sometimes  a  palatable,  sparkling  water  is  due  to  excess 
of  CO2  produced  by  pollution  with  organic  matter. 
Rain-water,  when  uncontaminated,  is  the  purest  and 
most  wholesome,  but  it  is  not  very  palatable  owing  to  its 
being  unaerated. 

Source. — All  water  is  derived  primarily  from  the 
precipitation  of  aqueous  vapor  in  form  of  rain,  snow, 
and  dew. 

The  sources  of  water  are : 

1)  Rain-water, — collected  immediately  after  falling, 
and  stored  for  future  use. 

2)  Surface-water, — found  in  lakes,  rivers,  and  ponds. 

3)  Ground-water, — obtained  from  springs  and  wells. 
According  to  the  Report  of  the  River-Pollution  Com- 


mission, waters  are: 


^Spring- water,  i  very  palatable. 

Wholesome. .  -|  Deep  well-water,  ) 

I  Upland  surface-water,  )      ,     ,  ,       i  .  x,i 
^  '  >•  moderately  palatable. 

I  Stored  rain-water,  ) 

I  Surface-water  from  cultivated  land,  \ 

Suspicious. ..  ■{  j^iver- water  contaminated  with  sewage>  >•  palatable. 


Shallow  well-water. 


Impurities. — Absolutely  pure  water  can  only  be 
found  in  the  laboratory  in  the  form  of  distilled  water, 
immediately  after  its  condensation;  otherwise  water,  be- 
ing a  powerful  solvent,  will  take  up  foreign  materials 
and  gases  with  which  it  may  come  in  contact.  Rain  is  the 


42 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


purest  water  found  in  nature,  but  in  its  transit  tlirougii 
the  air  it  takes  up  suspended  impurities,  and  when  it 
reaches  the  ground  it  is  already  contaminated  by  those 
impurities.  The  impurities  found  in  water  are  classi- 
fied according  to  their  character :  mineral,  vegetable, 
animal,  bacterial,  and  gaseous;  or  according  to  their 
source,  character  of  the  soils,  and  contamination  of  the 
water  due  to  the  methods  of  its  collection,  storage,  dis- 
tribution, etc. 

Pollution. — Owing  to  the  fact  that  water  takes  up 
most  inorganic  and  organic  matters,  it  is  often  polluted 
by  various  poisonous  materials,  metals,  organic  impur- 
ities, and  pathogenic  bacteria  with  which  it  comes  in  con- 
tact on  passing  from  its  various  sources,  tlirough  the 
soil,  surface-air,  ground- water,  etc.  The  sources  of 
water-supply,  especially  within  the  soil  and  also  on  the 
surface,  such  as  rivers  and  lakes,  are  prone  to  be  contam- 
inated by  sewage,  refuse,  bacteria,  and  other  impurities, 
and  the  water  derived  from  these  sources  may  take  up 
any  or  all  of  these  impurities. 

Influence  on  Health  and  Diseases  Due  to  Impure 
Water. — ]^ext  to  air,  water  is  most  indispensable  to  life 
and  health;  and  the  lack  of  water,  or  a  supply  of  water 
contaminated  by  impurities,  naturally  exerts  a  great  in- 
fluence on  health.  A  deficient  supply  for  drinking 
purposes  will  cause  failing  health,  and  a  lack  of  water 
for  body  cleansing  and  flushing  purposes  will  impair  the 
health  and  predispose  to  various  diseases.  The  im- 
purities contained  in  water  are  capable  of  producing 
various  diseases,  according  to  the  character  of  the  im- 
purity and  the  quantity  present. 


WATER. 

Among  the  diseases  due  to  impure  water  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  Diarrhoea,  Dyspepsia,  Constipation,  Dysentery, 
Malarial  Fevers,  Typhoid,  Cholera,  Yellow  Fever,  Skin 
Diseases,  Diseases  of  the  Bones  and  Urinary  Organs, 
etc. 


CHAPTER  VL 


WATER-SUPPLY. 

Water-supply.  — Whereyer  there  is  a  large  number 
of  people  in  one  place,  the  qnantitv  of  water  needed  for 
the  use  of  the  population  is  verv  great,  and  a  supply  of 
sufficient  quantity  and  quality  becomes  a  sanitary  prob- 
lem of  great  importance.  The  importance  -  of  this 
problem  had  been  recognized  very  early  in  the  history 
of  man;  and  we  find  in  many  ancient  lands  quite  suc- 
cessful attempts  to  supply  water  on  a  grand  scale.  In 
Egypt  artificial  lakes  were  made  to  provide  an  adequate 
water-supply  in  places  where  the  natural  supply  by  the 
l^ile  was  insufficient.  Remains  of  gigantic  water-basins 
of  marvellous  construction  have  been  found  in  Peru  and 
Mexico.  In  Ceylon  there  is  found  the  remains  of  a 
great  tank  or  artificial  lake,  40  miles  in  circumference. 
It  was  in  ancient  Rome,  however,  that  municipal 
water-supply  reached  its  zenith  of  development.  In  the 
year  614  b.c.  King  Ancus  ^Earcius  began  the  first 
great  aqueduct  which  supplied  Rome  with  pure  water 
drawn  from  a  distant  mountain ;  and  at  the  end  of  the 
first  century  a.d.  we  find  in  Rome  14  aqueducts  supply- 
ing 375  millions  of  gallons,  or  about  300  gallons  per 
head  per  diem. 

44 


WATER-SUPPLY. 


45 


During  the  middle  ages  all  sanitary  measures,  and 
also  municipal  water-supply,  were  neglected;  and  com- 
ing down  to  more  recent  times,  we  find  that  in  the 
United  States,  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century, 
only  IT  water-works  were  in  existence.  During  the 
past  century,  however,  great  progress  has  been  made  in 
this  as  well  as  in  other  sanitary  matters ;  and  at  present 
we  find  in  the  United  States  nearly  4,000  water-supply- 
ing w^orks,  most  of  them  being  owmed  by  municipalities. 

Sources  of  Water-supply. — The  sources  of  water 
are,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  last  chapter:  1)  Rain,  2)  sur- 
face-water, and  3)  subsurface-water. 

Rain-water. — The  supply  of  rain-water  is  uncertain, 
variable  in  quantity,  and  unreliable  in  quality. 

The  quality  of  rain-water,  apart  from  its  lack  of 
aeration,  is  good,  but  only  a  small  part  of  the  water 
needed  can  be  conveniently  collected  for  immediate  use ; 
and  in  order  to  make  provision  for  future  use,  various 
receptacles  must  be  employed  for  the  storage  of  rain- 
water and  its  distribution.  The  receptacles  employed 
for  storage,  etc.,  of  rain-water  are  liable  to  be  contam- 
inated, causing  the  impurities  to  pollute  the  water.  As 
a  rule,  little  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  supplying  a 
large  number  of  people  from  rain-water  directly. 

Surface-water. — Surface-water  is  but  rain  collected 
on  the  surface  in  the  form  of  ponds,  lakes,  and  rivers, 
which  serA^e  as  natural  reservoirs  and  storage-tanks  for 
the  collection  of  fresh  water.  The  water  from  these 
sources  is  easy  to  obtain,  and  in  unpopulated  districts  is, 
as  a  rule,  very  pure  and  fit  for  drinking  purposes.  The 
character  of  these  waters  depends,  however,  upon  the 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


nature  of  the  soil  in  which  they  are  located,  and  the 
degree  of  contamination  due  to  sewage,  refuse,  and  or- 
ganic impurities  drained  into  the  watercourses.  The 
proximity  of  dwellings,  towns,  factories,  etc.,  is  of  great 
importance,  and  greatly  influences  the  character  and 
purity  of  the  natural  water-supply. 

Subsurface- waters. — The  water  gained  from  under- 
ground sources  is  that  found  in  springs  and  wells. 

Springs  are  natural  outcroppings  of  subsoil-water, 
and  are  numerous  in  some  mountain  regions.  The  char- 
acter of  spring-water  varies  according  to  the  source, 
temperature,  and  physical  character  of  the  soils  through 
which  the  water  passes.  There  are  iron,  sulphur,  salt, 
and  other  springs,  according  to  the  minerals  they  con- 
tain; there  are  also  springs  the  waters  of  which  are  of 
high  temperature.  But  in  the  great  majority  of  springs 
the  water  is  cool,  free  from  impurities,  and  wholesome. 

Wells  are  holes  bored  in  the  ground  to  certain  levels 
at  whicli  water  is  found.  They  are  of  two  hinds :  shal- 
low and  deep.  The  shallow  wells  are  those  in  which  the 
water  percolated  into  the  ground  and  collected  imme- 
diately under  the  first  permeable  soil-stratum,  usually 
20  to  50  feet  from  the  surface.  The  Cjuality  of  shallow- 
Avell  water  is  suspicious  on  account  of  the  frequent  con- 
tamination of  the  soil  by  the  drainage  from  nearby  as 
well  as  far-distant  cesspools  and  sewers,  whereby  a  great 
quantity  of  organic  impurities  may  drain  into  it.  When 
free  from  contamination  the  water  from  shallow  wells 
is  wholesome. 

Deep  wells,  or  artesian  wells,  as  they  are  also  called, 
are  wells  the  depth  of  which  is  over  50  feet  from  tlie 


WATEB- SUPPLY. 


47 


surface;  and  as  the  Avater  in  these  wells  is  from  the  deep 
underlying  soil-strata,  it  is  consequently  free  from  sur- 
face contamination,  and  is  very  good  for  drinking  pur- 
poses. 

Storage,  Collection,  and  Distribution.— Whenever 
a  large  quantity  of  Avater  is  required  for  future  use,  the 
water  must  be  collected  and  stored  in  appropriate  re- 
ceptacles made  for  the  purpose.  The  collection,  stor- 
age, and  distribution  of  water  is  an  engineering  prob- 
lem which  cannot  be  gone  into  here.  Storage-tanks  and 
reservoirs  are  constructed  of  brick,  stone,  or  cement,  if 
large,  and  of  iron  or  wood,  if  small.  All  storage-vessels 
are  liable  to  be  contaminated,  hence  means  must  be  pro- 
vided to  protect  and  cleanse  them. 

Where  the  source  of  water-supply  is  distant  from  the 
place  of  delivery,  means  have  to  be  provided  for  convey- 
ing the  water  into  the  towns,  etc.,  where  it  is  to  be  used; 
this  is  done  by  stone  and  brick,  also  iron  and  lead  con- 
duits and  pipes,  through  which  the  water  passes. 
There  are  some  objections  to  iron  as  well  as  to  lead 
pipes.  Iron  becomes  rusty  in  time,  and  lead  is  prone  to 
impart  to  the  water  some  of  its  metal,  and  thus  may 
cause  lead-poisoning.  Glazed  iron  pipes  and  pipes  coated 
with  various  non-absorbing  substances  have  been  devised 
to  meet  these  objections. 

Purification. — To  free  water  from  its  impurities,  the 
following  various  processes  are  in  use. 

1)  Distillation.  This  is  the  best  and  only  way  to  get 
absolutely  pure  water  free  from  any  contamination. 
Distilled  water  has  a  somewhat  insipid  taste,  but  this  is 
overcome  after  thorough  aeration  of  the  water. 


48 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


2)  Boiling.  This  is  tlie  second  best  method,  as  the 
subjection  of  water  to  a  continuous  temperature  of  212° 
F.  kills  most  of  the  bacteria,  and  renders  harmless  all 
other  impurities  except  mineral  poisons. 

3)  Chemical  treatmenl.  The  addition  of  certain 
chemicals,  such  as  alum,  boric  acid,  potassium  perman- 
ganate, etc.  These  purify  the  water,  but  their  use  is 
not  a  desirable  method. 

4)  Filtration.  Water,  when  passing  through  gravel, 
sand,  powdered  pumice-stone,  charcoal,  etc.,  loses  part 
or  most  of  the  suspended  impurities  contained  in  it.  The 
method  of  purification  of  water  by  filtration  is  most 
in  vogue,  not  only  in  domestic,  but  also  in  municipal, 
economy.  To  be  effective,  filtration  must  be  thorough, 
and  a  more  or  less  frequent  change  of  filter  is  necessary. 
The  average  domestic  filter,  however,  is  a  snare  and  a 
delusion,  and  gives  but  little  protection. 


CHAPTEK  VII. 


DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE. 

Waste  Products. — There  is  a  large  amount  of  waste 
products  in  human  and  social  economy.  The  products 
of  combustion,  such  as  ashes,  cinders,  etc. ;  the  products 
of  street  sweepings  and  waste  from  houses,  as  dust,  rub- 
bish, paper,  etc.;  the  waste  from  various  trades;  the 
waste  from  kitchens,  e.g.,  scraps  of  food,  etc.;  the 
waste  water  from  the  cleansing  processes  of  individ- 
uals, domestic  animals,  clothing,  etc.;  and  finally  the 
excreta — urine  and  feces — of  man  and  animals;  all 
these  are  waste  products  that  cannot  be  left  undisposed 
of,  more  especially  in  cities  and  wherever  a  large  num- 
ber of  people  congregate.  All  waste  products  are  classi- 
fied into  three  distinct  groups:  1)  Refuse,  2)  Garbage, 
and  3)  Sewage. 

The  amount  of  refuse  and  garbage  in  cities  is  quite 
considerable;  in  Manhattan  alone  the  dry  refuse 
amounts  to  1,000,000  tons  a  year,  and  that  of  garbage  to 
175,000  tons  per  year.  A  large  percentage  of  the  dry 
refuse  and  garbage  is  valuable  from  a  commercial 
standpoint,  and  could  be  utilized  with  proper  facilities 
for  collection  and  separation.  The  disposal  of  refuse 
and  garbage  has  not  as  yet  been  satisfactorily  dealt 
with.  The  modes  of  waste  disposal  iu  the  United  States 

49 


50 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


are:  1)  Dumping  into  the  sea;  2)  filling  in  made  land, 
or  ploughing  into  lands ;  3)  cremation ;  and  4)  reduction 
by  various  processes  and  the  products  utilized. 

Sewage. — By  sewage  we  mean  the  waste  and  effete 
luiman  matter  and  excreta — the  urine  and  feces  of  hu- 
man beings  and  the  urine  of  domestic  animals  (the  feces 
of  horses,  etc.,  has  great  commercial  value,  and  is 
usually  collected  separately  and  disposed  of  for  fertiliz- 
ing purposes). 

The  amount  of  excreta  per  person  has  been  estimated 
(Frankland)  as  3  ounces  of  solid  and  40  ounces  of  fluid 
per  day,  or  about  30  tons  of  solid  and  100,000  gallons  of 
fluid  for  each  1000  persons  per  year. 

In  sparsely  populated  districts  the  removal  and  ulti- 
mate disposal  of  sewage  presents  no  difSculties ;  it  is  re- 
turned to  the  soil,  which,  as  we  know,  is  capable  of  puri- 
fying, disintegrating,  and  assimilating  quite  a  large 
amount  of  organic  matter.  But  when  the  number  of 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  increases,  and  the  popu- 
lation becomes  as  dense  as  it  is  in  some  towns  and  cities, 
the  disposal  of  the  human  waste  products  becomes  a 
question  of  vast  importance,  and  the  proper,  as  well  as 
the  immediate  and  final,  disposal  of  sewage  becomes  a 
serious  sanitary  problem. 

It  is  evident  that  sewage  must  be  removed  in  a  thor- 
ough manner,  otherwise  it  would  endanger  the  lives  and 
health  of  the  people. 

The  dangers  of  sewage  to  health  are: 

1)  From  its  offensive  odors,  which,  while  not  always 
directly  dangerous  to  haaltli,  often  produce  headaches, 
iiau§ea,  etc. 


DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE. 


51 


2)  Tlie  organic  matter  contained  in  sewage  decom- 
poses and  eliminates  gases  and  other  products  of  de- 
composition. 

3)  Sewage  may  contain  a  large  number  of  pathogenic 
bacteria  (typhoid,  dysentery,  cholera,  etc.). 

tt)  Contamination  of  the  soil,  ground-water,  and  air, 
by  percolation  of  sewage. 

The  problem  of  sewage-disposal  is  twofold:  1)  Im- 
mediate; viz.,  the  need  of  not  alloAving  sewage  to  remain 
too  long  on  the  premises,  and  its  immediate  removal 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  city;  and  2)  the  final  dis- 
position of  the  sewage,  after  its  removal  from  the  cities, 
etc. 

Modes  of  Ultimate  Disposal  of  Sewage. — The 

chief  constituents  of  sewage  are  organic  matter,  min- 
eral salts,  nitrogenous  substances,  potash,  and  phos- 
phoric acid.  Fresh-mixed  excrementitious  matter  has 
an  acid  reaction,  but  within  12-20  hours  it  becomes 
alkaline,  because  of  the  free  ammonia  formed  in  it. 
Sewage  rapidly  decomposes,  evolving  organic  and  fetid 
matters,  ammonium  sulphide,  sulphuretted  and  car- 
bur  etted  hydrogen,  etc.,  besides  teeming  with  animal 
and  bacterial  life.  xV  great  many  of  the  substances  con- 
tained in  sewage  are  valuable  as  fertilizers  of  soil. 
The  systems  of  final  disposal  of  sewage  are  as  follows : 

1)  Discharge  into  seas,  lakes,  and  rivers. 

2)  Cremation. 

3)  Physical  and  chemical  precipitation. 

4)  Soil  filtration. 

5)  Land  irrigation. 

^'Hisdiarge  into  Tl'^i^er;^'.— -Tb© -eaaiest  way  to  di^po^e 


52 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


of  sewage  is  to  let  it  flow  into  the  sea  or  other  run- 
ning watercourse.  The  objections  to  sewage  discharg- 
ing into  the  rivers  and  lakes  near  cities,  and  especially 
such  lakes  and  rivers  as  supply  water  to  the  municipal- 
ities, are  obvious.  But  as  water  can  purify  a  great 
amount  of  sewage,  this  method  is  still  in  vogue  in  cer- 
tain places,  although  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  it  will  in  the 
near  futue  be  superseded  by  more  proper  methods. 
The  objection  against  discharging  into  seas  is  the  opera- 
tion of  the  tides,  which  cause  a  backflow  and  overflow  of 
sewage  from  the  pipes.  This  backflow  is  remedied  by 
the  following  methods:  1)  Providing  tidal  flap-valves, 
permitting  the  outflow  of  sewage,  but  preventing  the 
inflow  of  sea-water;  2)  discharging  the  sewage  inter- 
mittently, only  during  low  tide ;  and  3)  providing  a  con- 
stant outflow  by  means  of  steam-power  pressure. 

Cremation. — Another  method  of  getting  rid  of  the 
sewage  without  attempting  to  utilize  it  is  by  cremation. 
The  liquid  portion  of  the  sewage  is  allowed  to  drain  and 
discharge  into  watercourses,  and  the  more  or  less  solid 
residues  are  collected  and  cremated  in  suitable  crema- 
tories. 

Precipitation. — This  method  consists  in  separating 
the  solid  matters  from  the  sewage  by  precipitation  b^- 
physical  or  chemical  processes,  the  'liquid  being  allowed 
to  drain  into  rivers  and  other  waters,  and  the  precip- 
itated solids  utilized  for  certain  purposes.  The  precipita- 
tion is  done  either  by  straining  the  sewage,  collecting  it 
into  tanks,  and  letting  it  subside,  when  the  liquid  is 
drawn  off  and  the  solids  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tpte,  ^  ratliej:  unsatisfactpry  ijietbod;  or,  by  c^ajui^-^al 


DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE. 


53 


processes,  precipitating  the  sewage  by  chemical  means, 
and  utilizing  the  products  of  such  precipitation.  The 
chemical  agents  by  which  precipitation  is  accomplished 
are  many  and  various;  among  them  are  lime,  alum,  iron 
perchloride,  phosphates,  etc. 

Soil  Filtration. — The  sew^age  is  filtered  by  passing- 
it  through  some  porous  soil,  by  which  it  is  purified  and 
oxidized;  if  the  filtration  is  intermittent  and  the  soil 
porous  and  well  drained,  a  large  amount  of  sewage  can 
be  disposed  of  by  this  process. 

Land  Irrigation. — In  this  method  the  organic  and 
other  useful  portions  of  sewage  are  utilized  for  irrigat- 
ing land,  to  improve  garden  and  other  vegetable  growths 
by  feeding  the  plants  with  the  organic  products  of  ani- 
mal excretion.  Flat  land,  with  a  gentle  slope,  is  best 
suited  for  irrigation.  The  quantity  of  sewage  dis- 
posed of  will  depend  on  the  character  of  the  soil,  its 
porosity,  the  time  of  the  year,  temperature,  intermit- 
tency  of  irrigation,  etc.  As  a  rule,  one  acre  of  land  is 
sufficient  to  dispose  of  the  sew^age  of  100  to  150 
people. 

Sewage-disposal  in  the  United  States. — According 
to  its  location,  position,  etc.,  each  city  in  the  United 
States  has  its  own  method  of  final  disposition  of  sewage. 
Either  one  or  the  other,  or  a  combination  of  two  of  the 
above  methods,  are  used. 

The  following  cities  discharge  their  sewage  into  the 
sea:  Portland,  Salem,  Lynn,  Gloucester,  Boston,  Provi- 
dence, Xew  York,  Baltimore,  Charleston,  and  Savan- 
nah. 

The  following  cities  discharge  their  sewage  into  rivers 


54 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


and  lakes:  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati,  St.  Lonis,  Albany, 
Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  Washington,  Buffalo,  Detroit, 
Pichmond,  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  Cleveland. 

Worcester  uses  chemical  precipitation.  In  Atlanta  a 
part  of  the  soil  is  cremated,  but  the  rest  is  deposited  in 
pits  8  X  10  feet,  and  5  feet  deep.  It  is  then  thoroughly 
mixed  with  dry  ashes  from  the  crematory,  and  after- 
wards covered  with  either  grain  or  grass.  In  Salt  Lake 
City  and  in  Woonsocket  it  is  disposed  of  in  the  same 
way.  In  Indianapolis  it  is  composted  with  marl  and 
sawdust,  and  after  some  months  used  as  a  fertilizer.  A 
portion  of  the  sewage  is  cremated  in  Atlanta,  Camden, 
Dayton,  Evansville,  Findlay,  O.,  Jacksonville,  McKees- 
port.  Pa.,  Muncie,  and  Xew  Brighton.  In  Atlanta,  in 
1898,  there  were  cremated  2362  loads  of  sew^age.  In 
Dayton,  during  30  days,  there  were  cremated  1900 
barrels  of  300  pounds  each."  (Chapin,  Mun.  San.  in 
U.  S.) 

The  Immediate  Disposal  of  Sewage.— The  final  dis- 
position of  sewage  is  only  one  part  of  the  problem  of 
sewage-disposal ;  the  other  part  is  how  to  remove  it  from 
the  house  into  the  street,  and  from  the  street  into  the 
places  from  w^hich  it  is  finally  disposed. 

The  immediate  disposal  of  sewage  is  accomplished  by 
two  methods — the  so-called  dri/y  and  the  water-carriage, 
methods.  By  the  dry  method  we  mean  the  removal  of 
sewage  without  the  aid  of  w^ater,  simply  collecting 
the  dry  and  liquid  portions  of  excreta,  storing  it 
for  some  time,  and  then  removing  it  for  final  dis- 
posal. By  the  water-carriage  method  is  imderstood  the 
system  by  which  sewage,  solid  and  liquid,  is  flushed 


DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE. 


55 


out  by  means  of  water,  through  pipes  or  conduits  called 
sewers,  from  the  houses  through  the  streets  to  the  final 
destination. 

The  Dry  Methods. — The  dry  or  conservacy  method 
of  sewage-disposal  is  a  primitive  method  used  by  all 
ancient  peoples ;  in  China  at  the  present  time,  and  in  all 
villages  and  sparsely  populated  districts;  it  has  for  its 
basic  principle  the  return  to  mother  earth  of  all  ex- 
creta, to  be  used  and  worked  over  in  its  natural  labora- 
tory. The  excreta  are  simply  left  in  the  ground  to  un- 
dergo in  the  soil  the  various  organic  changes,  the  differ- 
ence in  methods  being  only  as  regards  the  vessels  of  col- 
lection and  storage. 

The  methods  are : 

1)  Cesspool  and  privy-vault. 

2)  Pail  system. 

3)  Physico-chemical  system — earth,  ashes,  etc. 

4)  Pneumatic  system. 

The  Privy-vault  is  the  general  mode  of  sewage-dis- 
posal in  villages,  some  towns,  and  even  in  some  large 
cities,  wherever  sewers  are  not  provided.  In  its  prim- 
itive and  unfortunately  common  form,  the  privy-vault 
is  nothing  but  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground  near  or  at 
some  distance  from  the  house ;  the  hole  is  but  a  few  feet 
deep,  with  a  plank  or  rough  seat  over  it,  and  an  impro- 
vised shed  over  all.  The  privy  is  filled  with  the  excreta; 
the  liquids  drain  into  the  adjacent  ground,  which  be- 
comes saturated,  and  contaminates  the  nearest  wells  and 
watercourses.  The  solid  portion  is  left  to  accumulate 
until  the  hole  is  filled  or  the  stench  becomes  unbearable, 
when  the  hole  is  either  covered  up  and  forgotten,  or 


56 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


the  excreta  are  removed  and  the  hole  used  over  again. 
This  is  the  common  privy  as  we  so  often  find  it  near 
the  cottages  and  mansions  of  our  rural  populace,  and 
even  in  towns.  A  better  and  improved  form  of  privy  is 
that  built  in  the  ground,  and  made  water-tight  by  being 
constructed  of  bricks  set  in  cement,  the  privy  being 
placed  at  a  distance  from  the  house,  the  shed  over  it 
ventilated,  and  the  contents  of  the  privy  removed  reg- 
ularly and  at  stated  intervals  before  they  become  a 
nuisance.  At  its  best,  however,  the  privy-vault  is  an 
abomination,  as  it  can  scarcely  be  so  well  constructed 
as  not  to  contaminate  the  surrounding  soil,  or  so  often 
cleaned  as  to  prevent  decomposition  and  the  escape  of 
poisonous  gases. 

The  Pail  System  is  an  economic,  simple,  and,  on 
the  whole,  very  efficient  method  of  removing  fresh  ex- 
creta. The  excreta  are  passed  directly  into  stone  or 
metal  water-  and  gas-tight  pails,  which,  after  filling,  are 
hermetically  covered  and  removed  to  the  places  for 
final  disposal.  This  system  is  in  use  in  Koachdale,  Man- 
chester, Glasgow,  and  other  places  in  England. 

The  Physico-chemical  System  consists  in  mixing  va- 
rious ingredients,  such  as  dry  earth,  ashes,  charcoal,  car- 
bolic acid,  carbolated  sand,  etc.,  so  as  to  disinfect  and 
deodorize  the  excreta,  which  are  then  either  used  as  a 
fertilizer,  or  are  disposed  of  in  other  ways. 

The  Pneumatic  System  is  a  rather  complicated  me- 
chanical method  invented  by  a  Dutch  engineer,  and  is 
used  extensively  in  Holland.  In  this  system  the  excreta 
are  passed  to  certain  pipes  and  receptacles,  and  from 
there  aspirated  by  means  of  air  exhausts. 


DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE. 


57 


The  Water-carriage  System. — We  now  come  to  the 
modern  mode  of  using  water  to  carry  and  flush  all  sew- 
age material.  This  method  is  being  adopted  throughout 
the  civilized  world.  For  it  is  claimed  the  reduction  of 
the  mortality  rate  wherever  it  is  introduced.  The  water- 
carriage  system  presupposes  the  construction  and  ex- 
istence of  pipes  from  the  house  to  and  through  the  street 
to  the  place  of  final  disposition.  The  pipes  running  from 
the  house  to  the  streets  are  called  house-sewers;  and 
when  in  the  streets,  are  called  street-sewers. 

The  Separate  and  Combined  Systems.  — Whenever 
the  water-carriage  system  is  used,  it  is  either  intended 
to  carry  only  sewage  proper,  viz.,  solid  and  liquid  ex- 
creta flushed  by  water,  or  rain-water  and  other  waste 
water  from  the  household,  in  addition.  The  water-car- 
riage system  is  accordingly  divided  into  two  systems: 
the  combined,  by  which  all  sewage  and  all  waste  and 
rain-water  are  carried  through  the  sewers,  and  the  se'p- 
arate  system,  in  which  two  groups  of  pipes  are  used: 
the  sewers  proper  to  carry  sewage  only,  and  the  other 
pipes  to  dispose  of  rain-water  and  other  uncontaminated 
waste  water.  Each  system  has  its  advocates,  its  advan- 
tages, and  disadvantages. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  the  separate  system  are 
as  follows: 

1)  Sewers  may  be  of  small  diameter,  not  more  than 
6  inches. 

2)  Constant,  efficient  flow  and  flushing  of  sewage. 

3)  The  sewage  gained  is  richer  in  fertilizing  matter. 

4)  The  sewers  never  overflow,  as  is  frequently  the 
case  in  the  combined  system. 


58 


SANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


5)  The  sewers  being  small,  no  decomposition  takes 
place  therein. 

6)  Sewers  of  small  diameter  need  no  special  means 
of  ventilation,  or  main  traps  on  house-drains,  and  can 
be  ventilated  through  the  house-pipes. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  disadvantages  of  the  separate 
system  are: 

1)  The  need  of  two  systems  of  sewers,  for  sewage  and 
for  rain-water,  and  the  expense  attached  thereto. 

2)  The  sewers  used  for  sewage  proper  require  some 
system  for  periodically  flushing  them,  which,  in  the 
combined  system,  is  done  by  the  occasional  rains. 

3)  Small  sewers  cannot  be  as  well  cleaned  or  gotten 
at  as  larger  ones. 

The  separate  system  has  been  used  in  Memphis  and 
in  Keene,  H.,  for  a  number  of  years  with  complete 
satisfaction.  Most  cities,  however,  use  the  combined 
system. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


SEWERS. 

Definitions. — A  sewer  is  a  conduit  or  pipe  intended 
for  the  passage  of  sewage,  waste,  and  rain-water. 

A  house-sewer  is  the  branch  sewer  extending  from  a 
point  two  feet  outside  of  the  outer  wall  of  the  building 
to  its  connection  with  the  street-sewer,  etc. 

Materials. — The  materials  from  which  sewers  are 
constructed  are  iron,  cement,  and  vitrified  pipe. 

Iron  is  used  only  for  pipes  of  small  diameter;  and  as 
most  of  the  sewers  are  of  greater  diameter  than  6  inches, 
they  are  made  of  other  material  than  iron. 

Cement  and  brick  sewers  are  frequently  used,  and, 
when  properly  constructed,  are  efficient,  although  the 
inner  surface  of  such  pipes  is  rough,  which  causes  ad- 
herence of  sewage  matter. 

The  most  common  material  of  which  sewers  are  man- 
ufactured is  earthenware,    vitrified  pipes.'' 

"  Vitrified  pipes  are  manufactured  from  some  kind 
of  clay,  and  are  salt-glazed  inside.  Good  vitrified  pipe 
must  be  circular  and  true  in  section,  of  a  uniform  thick- 
ness, perfectly  straight,  and  free  from  cracks  or  other 
defects ;  they  must  be  hard,  tough,  not  porous,  and  have 

59 


60  HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION, 

a  liiglily  smooth  surface.  The  thicknesses  of  vitrified 
pipes  are  as  follows : 

4  inches  diameter ....    ^  inch  thick 
'6  ....    H  " 

g  'iC  (<  ^       ({  {( 

12    1      "  " 

The  pipes  are  made  in  2-  and  3-foot  lengths,  with  spigot- 
and  socket-ends."  (Gerhardt.) 


Fig.  13.— Brick  Sewer. 


»  Sewer-pipes  are  laid  in  trenches  at  least  3  feet  deep, 
to  insure  against  the  action  of  frosts. 


SEWEBS. 


61 


Construction. — The  level  of  the  trenches  in  which 
sewers  are  laid  should  be  accurate,  and  a  hard  bed  must 
be  secured  or  prepared  for  the  pipes  to  lie  on.  If  the 
ground  is  sandj  and  soft,  a  solid  bed  of  concrete  should 
be  laid,  and  the  places  where  the  joints  are  should  be 
hollowed  out,  and  the  latter  embedded  in  cement. 

Joints. — The  joints  of  the  various  lengths  must  be 
gas-tight,  and  are  made  as  follows:  Into  the  hub 
(the  enlargement  on  one  end  of  the  pipe)  the  spigot- 
end  of  the  next  length  is  inserted,  and  in  the  space  left 
between  the  two  a  small  piece,  or  gasket,  of  oakum,  is 
rammed  in;  the  remaining  space  is  filled  in  with  a  mix- 
ture of  the  best  Portland  cement  and  clean,  sharp  sand. 
The  office  of  the  oakum  is  to  prevent  the  cement  from 
getting  on  the  inside  of  the  pipe.  The  joint  is  then 
wiped  around  with  additional  cement. 

Fall. — In  order  that  there  should  be  a  steady  and 
certain  flow  of  the  contents  of  the  sewer,  the  size  and 
fall  of  the  latter  must  be  suitable ;  that  is,  the  pipes  must 
be  laid  with  a  steady,  gradual  inclination  or  fall  toward 
the  exit.  This  fall  must  be  even,  without  sudden 
changes,  and  not  too  great  or  too  small. 

The  following  has  been  determined  to  be  about  the 
right  fall  for  the  sizes  stated: 

4-inch  pipe ....  1  foot  in  40  feet 

6   "      "    1    "     "  60  " 

9   "      "    1    "     "  90  " 

12  "    1    "     "  120  " 

Flow. — The  velocity  of  the  flow  in  sewers  depends  on 
the  volume  of  their  contents,  the  size  of  the  pipes,  and 


62 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


the  fall.  Tlie  velocity  sliould  not  be  less  tlian  120  feet 
in  a  minute,  or  the  sewer  will  not  be  self -cleansing. 

Size. — In  order  for  the  sewer  to  be  self -cleansing,  its 
size  must  be  proportional  to  the  work  to  be  accom- 
plished, so  that  it  may  be  fully  and  thoroughly  flushed 
and  not  permit  stagnation  and  consequent  decomposi- 
tion of  its  contents.  If  the  sewer  be  too  small,  it  will 
not  be  adequate  for  its  purpose,  and  will  overflow,  back 
up,  etc. ;  if  too  large,  the  velocity  of  the  flow  will  be  too 
low,  and  stagnation  will  result.  In  the  separate  system, 
where  there  is  a  separate  provision  for  rain-water,  the 
size  of  the  sew^er  ought  not  to  exceed  6  inches  in  diam- 
eter. In  the  combined  system,  however,  when  arrange- 
ments must  be  made  for  the  disposal  of  large  volumes 
of  storm-water,  the  size  of  the  sewer  must  be  larger, 
thus  making  it  less  self -cleansing. 

Connections. — The  connections  of  the  branch  sewers 
and  the  house-sewers  with  the  main  sewer  must  be  care- 
fully made,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  impediment  to  the 
flow  of  the  contents,  either  of  the  branches  or  of  the 
main  pipe.  The  connections  must  be  made  gas-tight ;  not 
at  right  angles  or  by  T  branches,  but  by  bends,  curves, 
and  Y  branches,  in  the  direction  of  the  current  of  the 
main  pipe,  and  not  opposite  other  branch  pipes;  and  the 
junction  of  the  branch  pipes  and  the  main  pipe  must 
not  be  made  at  the  crown  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  sewer, 
but  just  within  the  water-line. 

Tide- valves. — Where  sewers  discharge  their  con- 
tents into  the  sea,  the  tide  may  exert  pressure  upon  the 
contents  of  the  sewer  and  cause  ^'  backing  up,"  blocking 
up  the  sewer,  bursting  open  trap-covers,  and  overflow- 


SEWERS. 


63 


ing  into  streets  and  houses.  To  prevent  this,  there  are 
constructed  at  the  mouth  of  the  street-sewers,  at  the 
outlets  to  the  sea,  proper  valves  or  tide-flaps,  so  con- 
structed as  to  permit  the  contents  of  the  sewers  to  flow 
out,  .jet  prevent  sea-water  from  backing  up  by  imme- 
diately closing  upon  the  slightest  pressure  from  outside. 

House-sewers.  — Where  the  ground  is  made,"  or 
filled  in,  the  house-sewer  must  be  made  of  cast  iron,  with 
the  joints  properly  calked  with  lead.  Where  the  soil 
consists  of  a  natural  bed  of  loam,  sand,  or  rock,  the 
house-sew^er  may  be  of  hard,  salt-glazed,  and  cylindrical 
earthenware  pipe,  laid  in  a  smooth  bottom  free  from 
projections  of  rock,  and  with  the  soil  well  rammed  to 
prevent  any  settling  of  the  pipe.  Each  section  must  be 
whetted  before  applying  the  cement,  and  the  space  be- 
tween each  hub  and  the  small  end  of  the  next  section 
must  be  completely  and  uniformly  filled  wdth  the  best 
hydraulic  cement.  Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  any 
cement  being  forced  into  the  pipe  to  form  an  obstruc- 
tion. N^o  tempered-up  cement  should  be  used.  A 
straight-edge  must  be  used  inside  the  pipe,  and  the  dif- 
ferent sections  must  be  laid  in  perfect  line  on  the  bot- 
tom and  sides. 

Connections  of  the  house-sewer  [when  of  iron]  with 
the  house  main  pipe  must  be  made  by  lead-calked  joints ; 
the  connection  of  the  iron  house-pipe  with  the  earthen- 
ware house-sewer  must  be  made  with  cement,  and 
should  be  gas-tight. 

Sewer- air  and  Gas. — Sewer-gas  is  not  a  gas  at  all. 
What  is  commonly  understood  by  the  term  is  the  air 
of  sewers,  the  ordinary  atmospheric  air,  but  charged 


64 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


and  contaminated  with  the  various  products  of  organic 
decomposition  takes  place  in  sewers.  Sewer-air  is  a 
mixture  of  gases,  the  principal  gases  being  carbonic 
acid;  marsh  gas;  compounds  of  hydrogen  and  carbon; 
carbonate  and  sulphides  of  ammonium;  ammonia;  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen;  carbonic  oxide,  volatile  fetid  mat- 
ter; organic  putrefactive  matter,  and  pathogenic  and 
other  bacteria. 

It  is  evident  that  an  air  charged  with  so  many  im- 
purities is  not  fit  to  be  respired,  and,  when  inhaled,  will 
produce  effects  injurious  to  health.  It  has  been  proved 
that  not  only  does  sewer-air  produce  a  lowering  of  the 
vital  forces  and  a  general  decline  of  health  in  those 
habitually  breathing  it,  but  that  it  is  also  capable  of  di- 
rectly causing  many  and  various  diseases.  The  contents 
of  sewers  are  the  breeding-places  for  various  virulent 
bacteria  of  infectious  diseases,  such  as  typhoid,  dys- 
entery, diarrhoea,  etc.,  and  constitute  a  favorable  cul- 
ture-medium for  all  other  disease-causing  organisms. 
Sewer-air  is,  therefore,  directly  dangerous  to  health 
and  life. 

Ventilation. — To  guard  against  the  bad  effects  of 
sewer-air,  it  is  necessary  to  dilute,  change,  and  ventilate 
the  air  in  sewers.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  various 
openings  left  in  the  sewers,  the  so-called  lamp  and  man- 
holes which  ventilate  by  diluting  the  sewer-air  with 
the  street-air.  In  some  places,  chemical  methods  of 
disinfecting  the  contents  of  sewers  have  been  under- 
taken with  a  view  to  killing  the  disease-germs  and 
deodorizing  the  sewage.  In  the  separate  system  of 
sewage-disposal,  where  sewer-pipes  are  small  and  usually 


SEWERS, 


65 


self-cleansing,  the  late  Col.  Waring  proposed  to  ventil- 
ate the  sewers  through  the  house-pipes,  omitting  the 
usual  disconnection  of  the  house-sewer  from  the  house- 
pipes.  But  in  the  combined  system  such  a  procedure 
would  be  dangerous,  as  the  sewer-air  would  be  apt  to 
enter  the  house. 

Eain-storms  are  the  usual  means  by  which  a  thor- 
ough flushing  of  the  street-sewers  is  effected.  There 
are,  however,  many  devices  proposed  for  flushing  sew- 
ers; e.g.^  by  special  flushing-tanks,  which  either  auto- 
matically or  otherwise  discharge  a  large  volume  of  wa- 
ter, thereby  flushing  the  contents  of  the  street-sewers. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 


PLUMBING.    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

Purpose  and  Requisites  of  House-plumbing. — A 

system  of  house-plumbing  presupposes  the  existence  of 
a  street-sewer,  and  a  water-supply  distribution  within 
the  house.  While  the  former  is  not  absolutely  essential, 
as  a  house  may  have  a  system  of  plumbing  without  there 
being  a  sew^er  in  the  street,  still  in  the  water-carriage 
system  of  disposal  of  sewage  the  street-sewer  is  the  out- 
let for  the  various  waste  and  excrementitious  matter  of 
the  house.  The  house-water  distribution  serves  for  the 
purpose  of  flushing  and  cleaning  the  various  pipes  in  the 
house-plumbing. 

The  purposes  of  house-plumbing  are:  1)  to  get  rid 
of  all  excreta  and  waste  water;  2)  to  prevent  any  for- 
eign matter  and  gases  in  the  sewer  from  entering  the 
house  through  the  pipes;  and  3)  to  dilute  the  air  in  the 
pipes  so  as  to  make  all  deleterious  gases  therein  innoc- 
uous. 

To  accomplish  these  results,  house-plumbing  demands 
the  following  requisites: 

1)  Receptacles  for  collecting  the  waste  and  excreta. 
These  receptacles,  or  plumbing  fixtures,  must  be  ade- 
quate for  the  purpose,  small,  non-corrosive,  self-cleans- 

66 


PLUMBING.    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  67 


ing,  well  flushed,  accessible,  and  so  constructed  as  to 
easily  dispose  of  their  contents. 

2)  Separate  vertical  pipes  for  sewage  proper,  for 
waste  water,  and  for  rain-water;  upright,  direct, 
straight,  non-corrosive,  water-  and  gas-tight,  well 
flushed,  and  ventilated. 

3)  Short,  direct,  clean,  well  flushed,  gas-tight  branch 
pipes  to  connect  receptacles  with  vertical  pipes. 

4)  Disconnection  of  the  house-sewer  from  the  house- 
pipes  by  the  main  trap  on  house-drain,  and  disconnec- 
tion of  house  from  the  house-pipes  by  traps  on  all  fix- 
tures. 

5)  Ventilation  of  the  whole  system  by  the  fresh-air 
inlet,  vent-pipes,  and  the  extension  of  all  vertical  pipes. 

Definitions. — The  house-drain  is  the  horizontal  main 
pipe  receiving  all  waste  water  and  sewage  from  the  ver- 
tical pipes,  and  conducting  them  outside  of  the  founda- 
tion-walls, where  it  joins  the  house-sewer. 

The  soil-pipe  is  the  vertical  pipe  or  pipes  receiving 
sewage  matter  from  the  water-closets  in  the  house. 

The  main  waste-pipe  is  the  pipe  receiving  waste 
water  from  any  fixtures  except  the  water-closets. 

Branch  soil-  and  ivaste-pipes  are  the  short  pipes  be- 
tween the  fixtures  in  the  house  and  the  main  soil-  and 
waste-pipes. 

Traps  are  bends  in  pipes,  so  constructed  as  to  hold  a 
certain  volume  of  water,  called  the  water-seal;  this 
water-seal  serves  as  a  barrier  to  prevent  air  and  gases 
from  the  sewer  from  entering  the  house. 

Vent-pipes  are  the  special  pipes  to  which  the  traps  or 
fixtures  are  connected  by  short-branch  vent-pipes,  and 


68 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


serve  to  ventilate  the  air  in  the  pipes,  and  prevent 
syphonage. 

The  rain-leader  is  the  pipe  receiving  rain  and  storm- 
water  from  the  roof  of  the  house. 

Materials  Used  for  Plumbing  Pipes. — The  mate- 
rials from  which  the  different  pipes  used  in  house- 
plumbing  are  made  differ  according  to  the  use  of  each 
pipe,  its  position,  size,  etc.  The  following  materials  are 
used:  cement,  vitrified  pipe,  lead,  cast,  wrought,  and 
galvanized  iron,  brass,  steel,  nickel,  sheet  metal,  etc. 

Cement  and  vitrified  pipes  aj'e  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  street-  and  house-sew^ers.  In  some  places 
vitrified  pipe  is  used  for  house-drains,  but  in  most  cities 
this  is  strongly  objected  to;  and  in  j^ew  York  City  no 
earthenw^are  pipes  are  permitted  within  the  house.  The 
objection  to  earthenware  pipes  are  that  they  are  not 
strong  enough  for  the  purpose,  break  easily,  and  cannot 
be  made  gas-tight. 

Lead  pipe  is  used  for  all  branch  waste-pipes,  and 
short  lengths  of  water-pipes.  The  advantage  of  lead 
pipes  is  that  they  can  be  easily  bent  and  shaped,  hence 
their  use  for  traps  and  connections.  The  disadvantage 
of  lead  for  pipes  is  the  softness  of  the  material,  wdiich 
is  easily  broken  into  by  nails,  gnawed  through  by  rats, 
etc. 

Brass,  nickel,  steel,  and  other  such  materials  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  expensive  plumbing,  but  are  not 
commonly  employed. 

Sheet  metal  and  galvanized  iron  are  used  for  rain- 
leaders,  refrigerator-pipes,  etc. 

Wrought  iron  is  used  in  the  so-called  Durham  system 


PLUMBING.    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  69 


of  phmibiiig.  AVrought  iron  is  very  strong;  the  sec- 
tions of  pipe  are  20  feet  long,  the  connections  are  made 
by  screw- joints,  and  a  system  of  house-plumbing  made 
of  this  material  is  very  durable,  unyielding,  strong,  and 
perfectly  gas-tight.  The  objections  to  wrought  iron 
for  plumbing-pipes  are  that  the  pipes  cannot  be  readily 
repaired  and  that  it  is  too  expensive. 

Casi  iron  is  the  material  universally  used  for  all 
vertical  and  horizontal  pipes  in  the  house.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  cast-iron  pipes  manufactured  for  plumbing 
uses:  the    standard  and  the  extra  heavy." 

The  following  are  the  relative  weights  of  each: 


Standard. 


2-inch  pipe,    4  lbs.  per  foot 


3  " 

4  " 
5 

6  " 
T 

8  " 


6 
9 

12  " 

15 

20 

25  " 


Extra  Heavy. 
5J  lbs. 

13 
17 
20 
27 
33i 


The  lighc-weight  pipe,  though  extensively  used  by 
plumbers,  is  generally  prohibited  by  most  municipali- 
ties, as  it  is  not  strong  enough  for  the  purpose,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  make  a  gas-tight  joint  with  these  pipes 
without  breaking  them. 

Cast-iron  pipes  are  made  in  lengths  of  5  feet  each, 
with  an  enlargement  on^one  end  of  the  pipe,  called  the 
hub  or  socket,"  into  which  the  other,  or  "  spigot  " 
end,  is  fitted.    All  cast-iron  pipe  must  be  straight. 


TO 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


sound,  cylindrical  and  smooth,  free  from  sand-lioles, 
cracks,  and  other  defects,  and  of  a  uniform  thickness. 
The  thickness  of  cast-iron  pipes  should  be  as  follows: 

2-inch  pipe  -fV  inches  thick, 
g    a       a  u 

^  8 
5 

Q      "  "  ^  "  " 

Cast-iron  pipes  are  sometimes  coated  by  dipping  into 
hot  tar,  or  by  some  other  process.  Tar-coating  is,  how- 
ever, not  allowed  in  New  York,  because  it  conceals  the 
sand-holes  and  other  flaws  in  the  pipes. 

Joints  and  Connections. — To  facilitate  connections 
of  cast-iron  pipes,  short  and  convenient  forms  and  fit- 
tings are  cast,  as  seen  in  Figs.  14  and  15.  Some  of  these 
connections  are  named  according  to  their  shape,  such  as 
L,  T,  Y,  etc. 

Iron  pipe  is  joined  to  iron  pipe  by  lead-calked  joints. 
These  joints  are  made  as  follows:  the  spigot  end  of  one 
pipe  is  inserted  into  the  enlarged  end,  or  the  "  hub,''  of 
the  next  pipe.  The  space  between  the  spigot  and  hub 
is  half  filled  with  oakum  or  dry  hemp.  The  remaining 
space  is  filled  with  hot  molten  lead,  which,  on  cooling, 
is  well  rammed  and  calked  in  by  special  tools  made  for 
the  purpose.  To  make  a  good,  gas-tight,  lead-calked 
joint,  experience  and  skill  are  necessary.  The  ring  of 
lead  joining  the  two  lengths  of  pipe  must  be  from  1  to 
2  inches  deep,  and  from  -J  to  f  of  an  inch  thick;  12 
ounces  of  lead  must  be  used  at  each  joint  for  each  inch 


PLUMBING.    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 


71 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION, 


Return-bend.  Yent-branch  for  Back 

Air  PIPE. 

Figs.  14-15. 


Figs.  14-15. 


74 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


in  the  diameter  of  the  pipe.  Iron  pipes  are  sometimes 
connected  by  means  of  so-called  rust-joints.  Instead  of 
lead,  the  space  between  the  socket  and  spigot  is  filled  in 
mth  an  iron  cement  consisting  of  98  parts  of  cast-iron 
borings,  1  part  of  flowers  of  snli^hur,  and  1  part  of  sal 
ammoniac. 

All  connections  between  lead  pipes  and  between  lead 
and  hrass  or  copper  pipes  must  be  made  by  means  of 
wiped solder-joints.  A  wiped  joint  is  made  by 
solder  being  poured  on  two  ends  of  the  two  pipes,  the 
solder  being  worked  about  the  joint,  shaped  into  an 
oval  lump,  and  wiped  around  with  a  cloth,  giving  the 
joint  a  bulbous  form. 

All  connections  between  lead  pipes  and  iron  pipes 
are  made  by  means  of  brass  ferrules.  Lead  cannot  be 
soldered  to  iron,  so  a  brass  fitting  or  ferrule  is  used;  it 
is  jointed  to  the  lead  pipe  by  a  wiped  joint,  and  to  the 
iron  pipe  by  an  ordinary  lead-calked  joint. 

Putty,  cement,  and  slip  joints  should  not  be  tolerated 
on  any  pipes. 

Traps. — We  have  seen  that  a  trap  is  a  bend  in  a  pipe 
so  constructed  as  to  hold  a  quantity  of  water  sufficient 
to  interpose  a  barrier  between  the  sewer  and  the  fixture. 
There  are  many  and  various  kinds  of  traps,  some  de- 
pending on  water  alone  as  their  "  seal,"  others  employ- 
ing mechanical  means,  such  as  balls,  valves,  lips,  also 
mercury,  etc.,  to  assist  in  the  disconnection  between  the 
house  and  sewer  ends  of  the  pipe  system. 

The  value  of  a  trap  depends:  1)  on  the  depth  of  its 
water-seal;  2)  on  the  strengths  and  permanency  of  the 
seal;  3)  on  the  diameter  and  uniformity  of  the  trap; 


PLUMBING.    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

4)  on  its  simplicity;  5)  on  its  accessibility;  and  6)  on  its 
self -cleansing  character. 

The  depth  of  a  trap  should  be  about  3  inches  for 
water-closet  traps^  and  about  2  inches  for  sink  and  other 
traps. 

Traps  must  not  be  larger  in  diameter  than  the  pipe 
to  which  they  are  attached. 

The  simpler  the  trap,  the  better  it  is. 

Traps  should  be  provided  with  cleanout  screw-open- 
ings, caps,  etc.,  to  facilitate  cleaning. 

The  shapes  of  traps  vary,  and  the  number  of  the 
various  kinds  of  traps  manufactured  is  very  great. 

Traps  are  named  according  to  their  use:  gully, 
grease,  sediment,  intercepting,  etc.;  according  to  their 
shape :  D,  P,  S,  V,  bell,  bottle,  pot,  globe,  etc, ;  and  ac- 
cording to  the  name  of  their  inventor :  Buchan,  Cottam, 
Dodd,  Antill,  Renk,  Hellyer,  Croydon,  and  others  too 
numerous  to  mention.  Figs.  16  and  17  show  some 
forms  of  traps. 

The  S  trap  is  the  best  for  sink  waste-pipes;  the  run- 
ning trap  is  the  best  on  house-drains. 

Loss  of  Seal  by  Traps. — The  seals  of  traps  are  not 
always  secure,  and  the  causes  of  unsealing  of  traps  are 
as  follows : 

1)  Evaporaiion.  If  a  fixture  in  a  house  is  not  used 
for  a  long  time,  the  water  constituting  the  seal  in  the 
trap  of  the  fixture  will  evaporate;  the  seal  will  thus  be 
lost,  and  ingress  of  sewer-air  will  result.  To  guard 
against  evaporation,  fixtures  must  be  frequently 
flushed;  and  during  summer,  or  at  such  times  as  the 
house  is  unoccupied  and  the  fixtures  not  used,  the  traps 


76 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


\  flAME 


eajNcipLE 


NAME 


PRINCIPLE 


u 


P  Q  S 
It   1^  10 

V  W 

DOUBLE-U 


APPLIOATION 


1  Fig.  le.—NoMENCLATURE.  (Knight). 


Fig.  17.— Running  Trap. 


PLUMBING,    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 


Fig.  17. 


78 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


are  to  be  filled  with  oil  or  glycerine,  either  of  which  will 
serve  as  an  efficient  seal. 

2)  Momentum.  A  sudden  flow  of  water  from  the 
fixture  may,  by  the  force  of  its  momentum,  empty  all 
water  in  the  trap  and  thus  leave  it  unsealed.  To  pre- 
vent the  unsealing  of  traps  by  momentum,  they  must 
be  of  a  proper  size,  not  less  than  the  waste-pipe  of  the 
fixture,  the  seal  must  be  deep,  and  the  trap  in  a  per- 
fectly straight  position,  as  a  slight  inclination  will  favor 
its  emptying.  Care  should  also  be  taken  while  emptying 
the  fixture  to  do  it  slowly  so  as  to  preserve  the  seal. 

3)  Capillary  attractio7i.  If  a  piece  of  paper,  cotton, 
thread,  hair,  etc.,  remain  in  the  trap,  and  a  part  of  the 
paper,  etc.,  projecting  into  the  lumen  of  the  pipe,  a 
part  of  the  water  will  be  withdrawn  by  capillary  at- 
traction from  the  trap  and  may  unseal  it.  To  guard 
against  unsealing  of  traps  by  capillary  attraction,  traps 
should  be  of  a  uniform  diameter,  without  nooks  and 
corners  and  of  not  too  large  a  size,  and  should  also  be 
well  flushed,  so  that  nothing  but  water  remain  in  the 
trap. 

Syphonage.  A  large  volume  of  water  completely 
filling  and  descending  a  vertical  pipe  must  in  its  course 
create  powerful  suction,  and  may,  by  the  force  of  its 
suction  and  the  vacuum  created,  aspirate  all  contents 
of  smaller  waste-pipes  and  the  traps  connected  with  the 
same  vertical  pipe;  the  water-seal  is  thus  taken  out  of 
the  traps,  leaving  them  unsealed.  This  action  is  called 
syphonage. 

One  way  to  prevent  the  syphonage  of  traps  is  by  the 
employment  of  mechanical  means  to  assist  the  water- 


PLUMBING.    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 


70 


seal.  This  is  done  in  the  mechanical  traps,  which,  while 
of  value  at  times,  are  rather  cumbersome  and  liable  to 
get  out  of  order. 


Copyright  by  the  J  I..  Mott  Ir.  n  VV.-rk?. 

Fig.  17.— Non-syphoning  Trap. 

The  other  way  to  prevent  the  unsealing  of  traps  is  to 
avoid  the  creating  of  a  vacuum  by  extending  the  verti- 
cal pipes  over  the  roof  and  by  connecting  the  traps 
with  open  vent-pipes,  the  air  in  which  will  prevent  the 


80 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


formation  of  a  vacuum  and  consequent  svphonage  of 
the  traps.  This  is  provided  in  the  vent  system.  Each 
trap  at  its  upper  portion,  or  crown,  is  connected  with  a 
branch  pipe  running  up  to  and  joining  a  straight  pipe 
which  leads  out  to  the  air,  thus  giving  each  trap  a  cer- 
tain column  of  air  to  prevent  the  creation  of  a  vacuum. 
This  vent  system  also  serves  the  purpose  of  ventilating 
the  air  in  the  traps  and  the  pipes  connecting  with  them. 


CHAPTEE  X. 


PLUMBIXG-PIPES. 

The  House-drain. — All  waste  and  soil  matter  in  the 
house  is  carried  from  the  receptacles  into  the  waste-  and 
soil-pipes,  and  from  these  into  the  lionse-drain,  the  main 
pipe  of  the  honse,  which  carries  all  waste  and  soil  into 
the  street-sewer.  The  house-drain  extends  from  the 
junction  of  the  soil-  and  waste-pipes  of  the  house 
through  the  house  to  outside  of  the  foundations  2-5 
feet,  whence  it  is  called  house-sewer.''  The  house- 
drain  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  house-plumbing 
system,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  make  its  con- 
struction perfect. 

Material.  The  material  of  which  house-drains  are 
manufactured  is  extra  heavy  cast  iron.  Lighter  pipes 
should  never  be  used,  and  the  use  of  vitrified  pipes  for 
this  purpose  should  not  be  allowed. 

Size.  The  size  of  the  house-drain  must  be  propor- 
tional to  the  work  to  be  performed.  Too  large  a  pipe 
will  not  be  self -cleansing,  and  the  bottom  of  it  will  fill 
with  sediment  and  slime.  AVere  it  not  for  the  need  of 
carrying  off  large  volumes  of  storm-water,  the  house- 
drain  could  be  a  great  deal  smaller  than  it  usually  is.  A 
3-inch  pipe  is  sufficient  for  a  small  house,  though  a  4- 

81 


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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


PL  UMBIN0-PIPE8. 


83 


inch  pipe  is  made  obligatory  in  most  cities ;  in  very  large 
buildings  a  5-  or  6-incli  pipe  is  required. 

Fall,  The  fall  or  inclination  of  the  house-drain  de- 
pends on  its  size.  Every  house-drain  must  be  laid  so  that 
it  should  have  a  certain  inclination  toward  the  house- 
sewer,  so  as  to  increase  the  velocity  of  flow  in  it  and 
make  it  self-flushing  and  self-cleansing.  The  rate  of 
fall  should  be  as  follows: 

For  4-inch  pipe ....  1  in  40  feet 
^  .  .  .  .  1  "  50 

^  .  .  .  .  1       60  " 

Position.  The  house-drain  lies  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion in  the  cellar,  and  should,  if  possible,  be  exposed  to 
view.  It  should  be  hung  on  the  cellar-wall  or  ceiling, 
unless  this  is  impracticable,  as  when  fixtures  in  the  cellar 
discharge  into  it ;  in  this  case  it  must  be  laid  in  a  trench 
cut  in  a  uniform  grade,  walled  upon  the  sides  with  bricks 
laid  in  cement,  and  provided  with  movable  covers  and 
with  a  hydraulic-cement  base  4  inches  thick,  on  which 
the  pipe  is  to  rest.  The  house-drain  must  be  laid  in 
straight  lines,  if  possible ;  all  changes  in  direction  must 
be  made  with  curved  pipes,  the  curves  to  be  of  a  large 
radius. 

Connections.  The  house-drain  must  properly  con- 
nect with  the  house-sewer  at. a  point  2  feet  outside  of  the 
outer  front  vault  or  area-wall  of  the  building.  An 
arched  or  other  proper  opening  in  the  wall  must  be 
provided  for  the  drain,  to  prevent  damage  by  settle- 
ment. 


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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


All  joints  of  the  pipe  must  be  gas-tight,  lead- 
calked  joints,  as  stated  before.  The  junction  of  the 
vertical  soil-,  waste-,  and  rain-leader  pipes  must  not  be 
made  by  right-angle  joints,  but  bj  a  curved-elbow  fit- 
ting of  a  large  radius,  or  by  Y  "  branches  and  45° 
bends. 

"When  the  house-drain  does  not  rest  on  the  floor,  but 
is  hung  on  the  wall  or  ceiling  of  the  cellar,  the  connec- 
tion of  the  vertical  soil-  and  waste-pipes  must  have  suit- 
able supports,  the  best  support  being  a  brick  pier  laid 
9  inches  in  cement  and  securely  fastened  to  the  wall. 

ISTear^all  bends,  traps,  and  connections  of  other  pipes 
with  the  house-drain,  suitable  handholes  should  be  pro- 
vided, these  handholes  to  be  tightly  covered  by  brass 
screw-ferrules,  screwed  in  and  fitted  with  red  lead. 

"  ^No  steam-exhaust,  boiler  blow-off,  or  drip-pipe  shall 
be  connected  with  the  house-drain  or  sewer.  Such  pipes 
must  first  discharge  into  a  proper  condensing-tank,  and 
from  this  a  proper  outlet  to  the  house-sewer  outside  of 
the  building  must  be  provided.'' 

Main  traps.  The  disconnection  of  the  house-pipes 
from  the  street-sewer  is  accomplished  by  a  trap  on  the 
house-drain  near  the  front  wall,  inside  the  house,  or  just 
outside  the  foundation-wall,  but  usually  inside  of  the 
house.  The  best  trap  for  this  purpose  is  the  syphon  or 
running-trap.  This  trap  must  be  constructed  with  a 
cleaning  handhole  on  the  inside  or  house  side  of  the 
trap,  or  on  both  sides,  and  the  handholes  are  to  be  cov- 
ered gas-tight  by  brass  screw-ferrules. 

Extension  of  vertical  pipes.  By  the  main  trap  the 
house-plumbing  system  is  disconnected  from  the  p'^wer; 


PL  UMBING-PIPES. 


85 


and  by  the  traps  on  each  fixture  from  tlie  air  in  tlie 
rooms;  still,  as  the  soil-,  waste-,  and  drain-pipes  usually 
contain  offensive  solids  and  liquids  which  contaminate 
the  air  in  the  pipes,  it  is  a  good  method  to  ventilate 
these  pipes.  This  ventilation  of  the  soil-,  waste-,  and 
house-drain  pipes  prevents  the  bad  effects  on  health 
from  the  odors,  etc.,  given  off  by  the  slime  and  excreta 
adhering  in  the  pipes,  and  it  is  accomplished  by  two 
]neans :  1)  by  extension  of  the  vertical  pipes  to  the  fresh 
air  above  the  roof,  and  2)  by  the  fresh-air  inlet  on  the 
house-drain. 

By  these  means  a  current  of  air  is  establisiied  through 
the  vertical  and  horizontal  pipes. 

Every  vertical  pipe  must  be  extended  above  the  roof 
at  least  2  feet  above  the  highest  coping  of  the  roof  or 
chimney.  The  extension  must  be  far  from  the  air- 
shafts,  windows,  ventilators,  and  mouths  of  chimneys, 
so  as  to  prevent  air  from  the  pipes  being  drawn  into 
them.  The  extension  must  be  not  less  than  the  full 
size  of  each  pipe,  so  as  to  avoid  friction  from  the  circu- 
lation of  air.  The  use  of  covers,  cowls,  return-bends, 
etc.,  is  reprehensible,  as  they  interfere  with  the  free 
circulation  of  air.  A  wire  basket  may  be  inserted  to 
prevent  foreign  substances  from  falling  into  pipes. 

Fresh-air  inlet.  The  fresh-air  inlet  is  a  pipe  of  about 
4  inches  in  diameter;  it  enters  the  house-drain  on  the 
house  side  of  the  main  trap,  and  extends  to  the  external 
air  at  or  near  the  curb,  or  at  any  convenient  place,  at 
least  15  feet  from  the  nearest  window.  The  fresh-air 
inlet  pipe  usually  terminates  in  a  receptacle  covered  by 
an  iron  grating,  and  should  be  far  from  any  hot-air  fur- 


86 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


nace  cold-air  box.  When  clean,  properly  cared  for,  and 
extended  above  the  ground,  the  fresh-air  inlet,  in  con- 
junction with  the  open  extended  vertical  pipe,  is  an 
efficient  means  of  ventilating  the  air  in  the  house-pipes; 
unfortunately,  most  fresh-air  inlets  are  constantly  ob- 
structed, and  do  not  serve  the  purpose  for  which  they 
are  made. 

The  Soil-  and  Waste-pipes. — The  soil-pipe  receives 
liquid  and  solid  sewage  from  the  water-closets  and 
urinals;  the  waste-pipe  receives  all  waste  water  from 
sinks,  wash-basins,  bath-tubs,  etc. 

The  material  of  which  the  vertical  soil-  and  waste- 
pipes  are  made  is  cast  iron. 

The  usual  sizes  of  waste-pipes  are  2  and  3  inches;  of 
soil-pipes,  3  and  4  inches.  Xo  soil-pipe  should  be  of 
greater  diameter  than  4  inches,  except  in  very  large 
buildings. 

The  joints  of  the  waste-  and  soil-pipes  should  be  lead- 
calked.  The  connections  of  the  lead  branch  pipes  or 
traps  with  the  vertical  lines  must  be  by  Y-joints,  and 
by  means  of  brass  ferrules,  as  explained  above. 

The  location  of  the  vertical  pipes  must  never  be 
within  the  wall,  built  in,  nor  outside  the  house,  but 
preferably  in  a  special  3-foot  square  shaft  adjacent  to 
the  fixtures,  extending  from  the  cellar  to  the  roof, 
where  the  air-shaft  should  be  covered  by  a  louvered 
skylight;  that  is,  with  a  skylight  with  slats  outwardly 
inclined,  so  as  to  favor  ventilation. 

The  vertical  pipes  must  be  accessible,  exposed  to 
view  in  all  their  lengths,  and,  when  covered  with  boards, 
so  fitted  that  the  boards  may  be  readily  removed. 


PL  UMBING-PIPES. 


87 


Vertical  pipes  must  be  extended  above  the  roof  in 
full  diameter,  as  previously  stated.  When  less  than 
4  inches  in  diameter,  thev  must  be  enlarged  to  -1  inches 
at  a  point  not  less  than  1  foot  below  the  roof-surface 
by  an    increaser  "  of  not  less  than  9  inches  long. 

All  soil-  and  waste-pipes  must,  whenever  necessary, 
be  securely  fastened  with  wrought-iron  hooks  or  straps. 

Vertical  soil-  and  waste-pipes  must  not  be  trapped  at 
their  base,  as  the  trap  would  not  serve  any  purpose,  and 
would  prevent  a  perfect  flow  of  the  contents. 

Branch  Soil-  and  Waste-pipes. — The  fixtures  must 
be  near  the  vertical  soil-  and  waste-pipes  in  order  that 
the  branch  w^aste-  and  soil-pipes  should  be  as  short  as 
possible.  The  trap  of  the  branch  soil-  and  waste-pipes 
must  not  be  far  from  the  fixture,  not  more  than  2  feet 
from  it,  otherwise  the  accunmlated  foul  air  and  slime  in 
the  waste-  and  soil-branch  will  emit  bad  odors. 

The  minimum  sizes  for  branch  pipes  should  be  as 
follows ; 

Kitchen  sinks   2  inches. 

Bath-tubs   1^  to  2  inches. 

Laundry-tubs   1^  to  2  inches. 

Water-closets  not  less  than  4  inches. 

Branch  soil-  and  waste-pipes  must  have  a  fall  of 
at  least  \  inch  to  1  foot. 
The  branch  waste-  and  soil-pipes  and  traps  must  be 
exposed,  accessible,  and  provided  wdth  screw-caps,  etc., 
for  inspection  and  cleaning  purposes. 

Each  fixture  should  be  separately  trapped  as  close  to 
the  fixture  as  pbfe'sibl^,  as  t^-'o  traps  on  the  same  line  of 


88 


HA^^DBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


branch  waste-  or  soil-pipes  will  cause  tlie  air  between  tlie 
traps  to  be  closed  in,  forming  a  so-called  cushion  "  that 
will  prevent  the  ready  flow  of  contents. 

"  All  traps  must  be  w^ell  supported  and  rest  true  with 
respect  to  their  water-level." 

Vent-pipes  and  their  Branches. — The  purpose  of 
vent-pipeSj  we  have  seen,  is  to  prevent  syphoning  of 
traps  and  to  ventilate  the  air  in  the  traps  and  pipes. 
The  material  of  which  vent-pipes  are  made  is  cast  iron. 

The  size  of  vent-pipes  depends  on  the  number  of  traps 
with  which  they  are  connected;  it  is  usually  2  or  3 
inches.  The  connection  of  the  branch  vent  to  the  trap 
must  be  at  the  crown  of  the  trap,  and  the  connection  of 
the  branch  vent  to  the  main  vent-pipe  must  be  above  the 
trap,  so  as  to  prevent  friction  of  air.  The  vent-pipes  are 
not  perfectly  vertical,  but  with  a  continuous  slope  so 
as  to  prevent  condensation  of  air  or  vapor  therein. 

The  vent-pipes  should  be  extended  above  the  roof, 
several  feet  above  coping,  etc. ;  and  the  extension  above 
the  roof  should  not  be  of  less  than  4  inches  diameter, 
so  as  to  avoid  obstruction  by  frost,  '^o  return-bends  or 
coAvls  should  be  tolerated  on  top  of  the  vent-pipes. 
Sometimes  the  vent,  instead  of  running  above  the  roof, 
is  connected  with  the  soil-pipe  several  feet  above  all 
fixtures. 

Rain-leaders. — The  rain-leader  serves  to  collect  the 
rain-water  from  the  roof  and  eaves-gutter.  It  usually 
discharges  its  contents  into  the  house-drain,  although 
some  leaders  are  led  to  the  street-gutter,  while  others 
are-  connected  with  school-sinks  in  the  yard.  The  lat- 
tex'  practice  is  objectionable^  as  it  may  lead  the  foul  air 


PL  UMBINQ-FIPES. 


89 


from  the  school-sink  into  the  rooms,  the  windows  of 
which  are  near  the  rain-leader;  besides,  the  stirring  up 
of  the  contents  of  the  school-sink  produces  bad  odors. 
When  the  rain-leader  is  placed  within  the  house,  it  must 
be  made  of  cast  iron  with  lead-calked  joints;  when 


Fig.  18. — Leader-pipe. 


outside,  as  is  the  rule,  it  may  be  of  slieet  metal  or  gal- 
"vanized-iron  pipe  with  soldered  joints.  When  the  rain- 
leader  is  run  near  windows,  the  rules  and  practice  are 
that  it  should  be  trapped  at  its  base,  the  trap  to  be  a 
deep  one  to  prevent  evaporation,  and  it  should  be  placed 
several  feet  below  the  ground,  so  as  to  prevent  freezing. 


CHAPTEK  XI. 


PLUMBmG  FIXTURES. 

The  receptacles  or  fixtures  within  the  house  for  re- 
ceiving the  waste  and  excrementitious  matter  and  car- 
rying it  off  through  the  pipes  to  the  sewer  are  very 
important  parts  of  house-plumbing.  Great  care  must 
be  bestowed  upon  the  construction,  material,  fitting, 
etc.,  of  the  plumbing  fixtures,  that  they  be  a  source  of 
comfort  in  the  house  instead  of  becoming  a  curse  to  the 
occupants. 

Sinks. — The  waste  water  from  the  kitchen  is  dis- 
posed of  by  means  of  sinks.  Sinks  are  usually  made  of 
cast  iron,  painted,  enamelled,  or  galvanized.  They  are 
also  made  of  wrought  iron,  as  well  as  of  earthenware 
and  porcelain.  Sinks  must  be  set  level,  and  provided 
with  a  strainer  at  the  outlet  to  prevent  large  particles  of 
kitchen-refuse  from  being  swept  into  the  pipe  and  ob- 
struct it.  If  possible,  the  back  and  sides  of  a  sink 
should  be  cast  from  one  piece;  the  back  and  sides,  when 
of  wood,  should  be  covered  by  non-absorbent  material, 
to  prevent  the  wood  from  becoming  saturated  with 
waste  water.  Xo  woodwork  should  enclose  sinks;  they 
should  be  supported  on  iron  legs  and  be  open  beneath 
and  around.    The  trap  of  h  ^ink  is  usually  2  inches  in 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES. 


91 


diameter,  and  should  be  near  tlie  sink;  it  should  have  a 
screw-cap  for  cleaning  and  inspection,  and  the  branch 
vent-pipe  should  be  at  the  crown  of  the  trap. 

Wash-basins. — Wash-basins  are  placed  in  bath- 
rooms, and,  when  properly  constructed  and  fitted,  are  a 
source  of  comfort.  They  should  not  be  located  in  bed- 
rooms, and  should  be  open,  mthout  any  woodwork 
around  them.  The  wash-bowls  are  made  of  porcelain 
or  marble,  mth  a  socket  at  the  outlet,  into  which  a  plug 
is  fitted. 

Wash-tubs. — Tor  laundry  purposes  wooden,  iron- 
enamelled,  stone,  and  porcelain  tubs  are  fitted  in  the 
kitchen  or  laundry-room.  Porcelain  is  the  best  mate- 
rial, although  very  expensive.  The  soapstone  tub  is  the 
next  best ;  it  is  clean,  non-absorbent,  and  not  too  expen- 
sive. AVood  should  never  be  used,  as  it  soon  becomes 
saturated,  is  foul,  leaks,  and  is  offensive.  In  old  houses, 
wherever  there  are  wooden  tubs,  they  should  be  cov- 
ered with  zinc  or  some  non-absorbent  material.  The 
wash-tubs  are  placed  in  pairs,  sometimes  three  in  a 
row,  and  they  are  generally  connected  with  one  lead 
waste-pipe  1^  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  with  one  trap 
for  all  the  tubs. 

Bath-tubs. — Bath-tubs  are  made  of  enamelled  iron 
or  porcelain,  and  should  not  be  covered  or  enclosed  by 
any  woodwork.  The  branch  waste-pipe  should  be 
trapped  and  connected  with  the  main  waste-  or  soil-pipe. 
The  floor  about  the  tub  in  the  bathroom  should  be  of 
non-absorbent  material. 

Refrigerators.— The  waste-pipes  of  refrigerators 
should  not  connect  with  any  of  the  house-pipes,  but 


92 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


should  be  emptied  into  a  basin  or  pail;  or,  if  the  refrig- 
erator is  large,  its  waste-pipe  should  be  conducted  to  tlie 
cellar,  Avliere  it  should  discharge  into  a  properly- 
trappedj  sewer-connected,  water-supplied,  open  sink. 

Boilers. — The  so-called  sediment-pipe  from  the  hot- 
water  boiler  in  the  kitchen  should  be  connected  with 
the  sink-trap  at  the  inlet  side  of  the  trap. 

Urinals. — As  a  rule,  no  urinals  should  be  tolerated 
within  a  house;  they  are  permissible  only  in  factories 
and  office  buildings.  The  material  is  enamelled  iron  or 
porcelain.  They  must  be  provided  with  a  proper  water- 
supply  to  flush  them. 

Overflows. — To  guard  against  overflow  of  wash- 
basins, bath-tubs,  etc.,  overflow-pipes  from  the  upper 
portion  of  the  fixtures  are  commonly  jDrovided.  These 
pipes  are  connected  with  the  inlet  side  of  the  trap  of 
the  same  fixture.  They  are,  however,  liable  to  become 
a  nuisance  by  being  obstructed  with  dirt  and  not  being 
constantly  flushed;  whenever  possible  they  should  be 
dispensed  with. 

Safes  and  Wastes. — A  common  usage  with  plumb- 
ers in  the  past  has  been  to  provide  sinks,  wash-basins, 
bath-tubs,  and  water-closets,  not  only  with  overflow- 
pipes,  but  also  with  so-called  safes,  which  consist  of 
sheets  of  lead  turned  up  several  inches  at  the  edges  so 
as  to  catch  all  drippings  and  overflow  from  flxtures; 
from  these  safes  a  drip-pipe  or  waste  is  conducted  to 
the  cellar,  where  it  empties  into  a  sink.  Of  course, 
when  such  safe-wastes  are  connected  with  the  soil-  or 
waste-pipes,  they  become  a  source  of  danger,  even  if 
they  are  trapped,  as  they  are  not  properly  cared  for  or 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES. 


93 


flushed;  and  their  traps  are  usually  not  sealed.  Even 
when  discharging  into  a  sink  in  the  cellar,  safes  and 
safe-waste  are  very  unsightly,  dirty,  liable  to  accumu- 
late filth,  and  are  offensive.  With  open  plumbing,  and 
Avith  the  floors  under  the  fixtures  of  non-absorbent  ma- 
terial, they  are  useless. 

Water-closets. — The  most  important  plumbing  fix- 
ture in  the  house  is  the  water-closet.  It  is  of  the  great- 
est importance  that  the  water-closet  be  placed  in  a 
separate  apartment,  and  not  in  the  kitchen  or  any  other 
room  of  the  house.  This  apartment  should  be  well 
lighted  and  ventilated.  The  most  advanced  regulations 
in  this  respect  are  the  rules  of  the  Tenement-house  Law 
of  N^ew  York  (1901): 

"  There  shall  be  a  separate  water-closet  in  a  separate  compart- 
ment within  each  apartment.  All  water-closet  compartments  must 
have  a  window  opening  upon  the  street,  yard,  court,  or  vent-shaft. 
The  floor  of  every  water-closet  compartment  shall  be  made  water- 
proof with  asphalt,  cement,  tile,  stone,  metal  or  some  other  water- 
proof material;  and  such  Avaterproofing  shall  extend  at  least  six 
inches  above  the  floor,  so  that  the  floor  can  be  washed  or  flushed 
without  leaking.  No  drip-tray  shall  be  permitted.  No  water- 
closet  fixture  shall  be  enclosed  with  woodwork." 

There  are  many  water-closets  on  the  market,  some 
bad,  some  indifferent,  and  some  good. 

The  pan  closet.  The  water-closet  most  commonly 
used  in  former  times  was  a  representative  of  the  group 
of  water-closets  with  mechanical  contrivances.  This  is 
the  pan  closet,  now  universally  condemned  and  prohib- 
ited from  further  use.  The  pan  closet  consists  of  4 
principal  parts:  1)  a  basin,  of  china,  small  and  round; 
2)  a  copper  6-inch  pan  under  the  basin;  3)  a  large  iron 
container,  into  which  the  basin  with  the  pan  under  it  is 


94 


HANDBOOK  OK  SANITATION. 


placed;  and  4)  a  D  trap  to  which  the  container  is  joined. 
The  pan  is  attached  with  a  lever  to  a  handle,  which, 
when  pulled,  moves  the  pan,  this  describes  a  half  circle 


and  drops  the  contents  into  the  container  and  trap. 
The  objections  to  pan  closets  are  the  following: 

1)  There  being  a  nnmber  of  parts,  and  mechanical 
contrivances,  they  are  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

2)  The  bowl  is  set  into  the  container  and  cannot  be 
inspected,  and  is  usually  very  dirty  beneath. 

3)  The  pan  is  often  missing,  gets  out  of  order,  and  is 
liable  to  be  soiled  by  adhering  excreta. 

4)  The  container  is  large,  excreta  adhere  to  its  upper 
parts,  and  the  iron  becomes  corroded  and  coated  with 


5)  With  every  pull  of  the  handle  and  pan,  foul  air 
enters  rooms. 

-  0)  The  junctions  between  the  bowl  and  container, 
and  the  container  and  trap,  are  usually  not  gas-tight. 


Fig  19. — Pan  Water-closet. 


iilth. 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES. 


95 


7)  The  pan  breaks  the  force  of  the  water  flush,  and 
the  trap  is  usually  not  completely  emptied. 

Valve  and  'plunger  closets  are  an  improvement  upon 
the  pan  closets,  but  are  not  free  from  several  objec- 
tions enumerated  above.  As  a  rule,  all  water-closets 
with  mechanical  parts  are  objectionable. 

Hopper  closets  are  made  of  iron  or  earthenware.  Iron 


Fig.  20. — Long  Hopper  Water-closet. 


hopper  closets  easily  corrode;  they  are  usually  enam- 
elled on  the  inside.  Earthenware  hoppers  are  prefer- 
able to  iron  ones.  Hopper  closets  are  either  long  or 
short;  when  long,  they  expose  a  very  large  surface  to 
be  fouled,  require  a  trap  below  the  floor  and  are,  as  a 
rule,  very  difficult  to  clean  or  to  keep  clean.  Short 
hopper  closets  are  preferable,  as  they  are  easily  kept 
clean  and  are  well  flushed.  When  provided  w^ith  flush- 
ing-iim,  and  with  a  good  water-supply  cistern  and  large 


^'^  JIANDBOOK  OJS-  SANITATION. 

supply-pipe,  the  short  hopper  closet  is  a  good  form  of 
water-closet. 

The  washout  and  washdown  water-closets  are  an  im- 
provement upon  the  hopper  closets.  They  are  manu- 
factured from  earthenware  or  porcelain,  and  are  so 


ni 


Fig.  21. — Short  Hoppek  Water-closet. 


shaped  that  they  contain  a  water-seal,  obviating  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  separate  trap  under  the  closet. 

Cisterns,  AYater-closets  must  not  be  flushed  directly 
from  the  water-supply  pipes,  as  there  is  a  possibility  of 
contaminating  the  water-supply.  Water-closets  should 
be  flushed  from  special  cisterns,  either  of  iron  or  of 
wood  metal  lined;  these  cisterns  should  be  placed  not 
less  than  4  feet  above  the  water-closet,  and  provided 
with  a  straight  flush-pipe  of  at  least      in.  diameter. 

The  cistern  is  fitted  with  plug  and  handle,  so  that 
by  pulling  at  the  handle  the  plug  is  lifted  out  of  the 


Fig.  23.— WASTTorT  Water  t  loset. 


98 


IIAXDIIOOK  OX  SANITATION. 


socket  of  the  cistern  and  the  contents  permitted  to  rnsh 
ihrongh  the  pipe  and  flush  the  water-closet.  A  separate 
ball  arrangement  is  made  for  closing  the  water-supply 
Avhen  the  cistern  is  full.  The  cistern  must  have  a  ca- 
pacity of  at  least  3-5  gallons  of  water;  the  flush-pipe 


Fig.  24. — Flushing  Cistekn. 


must  luive  a  diameter  of  not  less  than  one  and  one-(juar- 
ter  incli,  and  the  ])ipe  must  l)e  straight,  witliout  bends, 
and  the  arrangement  within  the  closets  such  as  to  flusli 
all  parts  of  the  bowl  at  the  same  time. 

Yard  Closets. — In  many  old  houses  the  water-closet 
accommodations  are  placed  in  the  yard.  There  are  two 
forms  of  these  yard  closets  commonly  used;  the  School- 
sink  and  the  Yard  Hopper. 

Tlie  school-sink  is  an  iron  trough  from  5  to  12  or 
more  feet  long,  and  1  to  2  feet  wide  and  1  foot  dee]),  set 
in  a  trench  several  feet  below  the  surface,  with  an  inclin- 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES, 


99 


ation  toward  tlie  exit;  on  one  end  of  the  trough  there 
is  a  socket  fitted  with  a  plug,  and  on  the  other  a  flushing 
apparatus  consisting  simply  of  a  water  service-pipe. 


Fig.  25. — School  sink  after  Several  Months'  Use. 
(J.  Sullivan.) 

Above  the  iron  trough  brick  walls  are  built  up,  enclos- 
ing it;  over  it  are  placed  wooden  seats,  and  surround- 
ing the  whole  is  a  woodfen  shed  witli^  cbm|>artnient^  for 


100 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


even^  seat.  The  excreta  are  allowed  to  fall  into  the 
trough,  which  is  partly  filled  with  water,  and  once  a 
day,  or  as  often  as  the  caretaker  chooses,  the  plug  is 
pulled  up  and  the  excreta  allowed  to  flow  into  the 
sewer  with  which  the  school-sink  is  connected.  These 
school-sinks  are,  as  a  rule,  a  nuisance,  and  are  dangerous 
to  health.   The  objections  to  them  are  the  following : 

1)  The  excreta  lies  exposed  in  the  iron  trough,  and 
may  decompose  even  in  one  day;  and  it  is  always  offen- 
sive. 

2)  The  iron  trough  is  easily  corroded. 

3)  The  iron  trough,  being  large,  presents  a  large  sur- 
face for  adherence  of  excreta. 

4)  The  brickwork  above  the  trough  is  not  flushed 
when  the  school-sink  is  emptied,  and  excreta  which  usu- 
ally adheres  to  it  decomposes,  creating  offensive  odors. 

5)  The  junction  of  the  iron  trough  with  the  brick- 
work, and  the  brickwork  itself,  is  usually  defective,  or 
becomes  defective,  and  allows  foul  water  and  sewage  to 
pass  into  the  yard,  or  into  the  wall  adjacent  to  the 
school-sink.  By  the  Tenement-house  Law  of  New 
York,  after  1903  the  use  of  school-sinks  is  prohibited 
even  in  old  buildings. 

Yard  hopper  closets.  Where  the  water-closet  ac- 
commodations cannot,  for  some  reason,  be  put  within 
the  house,  yard  hopper  closets  are  commonly  employed. 
These  closets  are  simply  long,  iron  enamelled  hoppers, 
trapped,  and  connected  with  a  drain-pipe  discharging 
into  the  house-drain.  These  closets  are  flushed  from 
cisterns,  but,  in  such  case,  the  cisterns  must  be  pro- 
tected from  freezing;  this  is  accomplished  in  some 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES.  101 

houses  by  putting  the  yard  hopper  near  the  house  and 
placing  the  cistern  within  the  house;  however,  this  can 
hardly  be  done  where  several  hoppers  must  be  employed. 
In  most  cases,  yard  hoppers  are  flushed  by  automatic 


Fig.  26. — J.  Sullivan's  Improved  Yard  Hopper  Closet. 

rod-valves,  so  constructed  as  to  flush  the  bowl  of  the 
hopper  whenever  the  seat  it  pressed  upon.  These  valves^ 
as  a  rule,  frequently  get  out  of  order  and  leak,  and  care 


102 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


Fjg.  27. — A  Modern  Wateu-closet.    (L.  J.  Mott  Ieon  Works.; 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES. 


103 


must  be  taken  to  construct  the  vault  under  the  hoppers 
so  that  it  be  perfectly  water-tight.  The  cut  on  page  101 
represents  an  improved  form  of  yard  hopper  suggested 
by  Inspector  J.  Sullivan,  of  the  Kew  York  Health  De- 
partmentj  and  used  in  a  number  of  places  with  complete 
satisfaction.  The  improvement  consists  in  the  doors 
and  walls  of  the  privy  apartment  being  of  double  thick- 
ness, lined  with  builders'  lining  on  the  inside,  and  the 
water-service  pipes  and  cistern  being  protected  by  felt 
or  mineral  wool  packing. 

Yard- and  Area-drains. — The  draining  of  the  surface 
of  the  yard  or  other  areas  is  done  by  tile  or  iron  pipes 
connecting  with  the  sewer  or  house-drain.  Every  such 
drain  should  be  trapped,  not  with  a  bell-  or  a  lip-trap,  but 
by  a  common  syphon;  or,  better,  the  gully  and  trap  are 
made  of  one  piece. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


DEFECTS   m   PLUMBIXG;   EXAMINATION  AND^ 

TESTS. 

The  materials  used  in  house-plumbing  are  many  and 
various,  the  parts  are  very  numerous,  the  joints  and  con- 
nections are  frequent,  the  position  and  location  of  pipes, 
etc.,  are  often  inaccessible  and  hidden,  and  the  whole 
system  quite  complicated.  Moreover,  no  part  of  the 
house  construction  is  subjected  to  so  many  strains  and 
uses,  as  well  as  abuses,  as  the  plumbing  of  the  house. 
Hence,  in  no  part  of  house  construction  can  there  be  as 
much  bad  work  and  scamping  "  done  as  in  the  plumb- 
ing; and  no  part  of  the  house  is  liable  to  have  so  many 
defects  in  construction,  maintenance,  and  condition  as 
the  plumbing.  At  the  same  time,  the  plumbing  of  a 
house  is  of  very  great  importance  and  influence  on  the 
health  of  the  tenants,  for  defective  materials,  bad  work- 
manship and  improper  condition  of  the  plumbing  of  a 
house  may  endanger  the  lives  of  its  inhabitants  by  caus- 
ing various  diseases. 

Defects  in  Plumbing. — The  defects  usually  found  in 
plumbing  are  so  many  that  they  cannot  all  be  enumer- 
ated here.  Among  the  principal  and  most  common  de- 
fects, however,  are  the  following: 

104 


DEFECTS  IN  PLUMBING. 


105 


.  Materials.  Light-weight  iron  pipes ;  these  crack  eas- 
ily and  cannot  stand  the  strain  of  calking.  Sandholes 
made  during  casting;  these  cannot  always  be  detected, 
especially  when  the  pipes  are  tar-coated.  Thin  lead 
pipe,  not  heavy  enough  to  withstand  the  bending  and 
drawing  it  is  subjected  to. 

Location  and  Position.  Pipes  may  be  located  within 
the  walls  and  built  in,  in  which  case  they  are  inacces- 
sible, and  may  be  defective  without  any  one  being  able 
to  discover  the  defects.  Pipes  may  be  laid  with  a  wrong 
or  an  insufficient  fall,  thus  leaving  them  unflushed,  or 
retarding  the  proper  velocity  of  the  flow  in  the  pipes. 
Pipes  may  be  put  underground  and  have  no  support 
underneath,  when  some  parts  or  lengths  may  sink,  get 
out  of  joint  and  the  sewage  run  into  the  ground  instead 
of  through  the  pipes.  The  pipes  may  be  so  located  as  to 
require  sharp  bends  and  curves,  which  wall  retard  the 
flow  in  them. 

Joints.  Joints  in  pipc^  may  be  defective,  leaking 
and  not  gas-tight,  because  of  imperfect  calking,  insuffi- 
cient lead  having  been  used;  or,  no  oakum  having  been 
used  and  the  lead  running  into  the  lumen  of  the  pipe ;  or, 
not  sufficient  care  and  time  being  taken  for  the  work. 
Joints  may  be  defective  because  of  iron  ferrules  being 
used  instead  of  brass  ferrules ;  through  improperly  wiped 
joints;  through  bad  workmanship,  bad  material,  or  igno- 
rance of  the  plumber.  Plumbers  often  use  T  branches 
instead  of  Y  branches;  sharp  bends  instead  of  bends  of 
45  degrees  or  more;  slip  joints  instead  of  lead-calked 
ones;  also,  they  often  connect  a  pipe  of  larger  diameter 
with  a  pipe  of  small  diameter,  etc.,  etc. 


106 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


Traps.  The  traps  may  be  bad  in  principle  and  in 
construction;  they  may  be  badly  situated  or  connected, 
or  they  may  be  easily  unsealed,  frequently  obstructed, 
inaccessible,  foul,  etc. 

Ventilation,  The  house-drain  may  have  no  fresh-air 
inlet,  or  the  fresh-air  inlet  may  be  obstructed;  the  vent- 
pipes  may  be  absent,  or  obstructed;  the  vertical  pipes 
may  not  be  extended. 

Condiiion.  Pipes  may  have  holes,  may  be  badly  re- 
paired, bent,  out  of  shape,  or  have  holes  patched  up  with 
cement  or  putty;  pipes -may  be  corroded,  gnawed  by 
rats,  or  they  may  be  obstructed,  etc.,  etc. 

The  above  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  defects  that 
may  be  found  in  the  plumbing  of  a  house.  It  is,  there- 
fore, of  paramount  importance  to  have  the  house-plumb- 
ing regularly,  frequently,  and  thoroughly  examined  and 
inspected,  as  well  as  put  to  the  various  tests,  so  as  to 
discover  the  defects  and  remedy  them. 

Plumbing  Tests. — The  following  are  a  few  minor 
points  for  testing  plumbing: 

1)  To  test  a  trap  with  a  view  to  finding  out  whether 
its  seal  is  lost  or  not,  knock  on  the  trap  with  a  piece  of 
metal;  if  the  trap  is  empty,  a  hollow  sound  will  be  given 
out;  if  full,  the  sound  will  be  dull.  This  is  not  reliable 
in  case  the  trap  is  full  or  half -full  with  slime,  etc.  An- 
other test  for  the  same  purpose  is  as  follows :  Hold  a 
light  near  the  outlet  of  the  fixture;  if  the  light  is  drawn 
in,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  trap  is  empty. 

2)  Defects  in  leaded  joints  can  be  detected  if  white 
lead  has  been  used,  as  it  will  be  discolored  in  case  sewer- 
gas  escape  from  the  joints. 


2JBFECTS  /.Y  PLUMBING. 


107 


3)  The  connection  of  a  waste-pipe  of  a  bath-tub  with 
the  trap  of  the  water-closet  can  sometimes  be  discovered 
bj  suddenly  emptying  the  bath-tub  and  watching  the 
contents  of  the  water-closet  trap ;  the  latter  will  be  agi- 
tated if  the  waste-pipe  is  discharged  into  the  trap  or  on 
the  inlet  side  of  trap  of  the  water-closet. 

4)  The  presence  of  sewer-gas  in  a  room  can  be  de- 
tected by  the  following  chemical  method;  Saturate  a 
piece  of  unglazed  paper  mth  a  solution  of  acetate  of 
lead  in  rain  or  boiled  water,  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  8 ; 
allow  the  paper  to  dry  and  hang  up  in  the  room  where 
the  escape  of  sewer-gas  is  suspected;  if  sewer-gas  is 
present,  the  paper  will  be  completely  blackened. 

The  main  tests  for  plumbing  are:  1)  The  Hy- 
draulic, or  water-pressure  test;  2)  the  SmoTce,  or  sight 
test;  and  3)  the  Scent,  or  peppermint,  etc.-,  test. 

The  Water-pressure  Test  is  used  to  test  the  vertical 
and  horizontal  pipes  in  new  plumbing  before  the  fix- 
tures have  been  connected.  It  is  applied  as  follows: 
The  end  of  the  house-drain  is  plugged  up  with  a  proper 
air-tight  plug,  of  which  there  are  a  number  on  the 
market.  The  pipes  are  then  filled  with  water  to  a  cer- 
tain level,  which  is  carefully  noted.  The  water  is  allowed 
to  stand  in  the  pipes  for  half  an  hour,  at  the  expiration 
of  which  time,  if  the  joints  shoAV  no  sign  of  leakage,  and 
are  not  sweating,  and  if  the  level  of  the  water  in  the 
pipes  has  not  fallen,  the  pipes  are  water-tight.  This  is  a 
very  reliable  test,  and  is  made  obligatory  for  testing  all 
new  plumbing  work. 

The  SmoJce  Test  is  also  a  very  good  test.   It  is  applied 


108 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


as  follows:  By  means  of  bellows,  or  some  explod- 
ing, smoke-prodncing  rocket,  smoke  is  forced  into 
the  system  of  pipes,  the  ends  plugged  up,  and  the  escape 
of  the  smoke  watched  for,  as  wherever  there  are  de- 
fects in  the  pipes  the  smoke  will  appear.  A  number  of 
special  appliances  for  this  test  are  manufactured,  all  of 
them  more  or  less  ingenious. 

The  Scent  Test  is  made  by  putting  into  the  pipes  a 
certain  quantity  of  some  pungent  chemical,  like  pepper- 
mint-oil, etc.,  the  odor  of  wdiich  will  escape  from  the  de- 
fects in  the  pipes  if  there  are  any.  Oil  of  peppermint  is 
commonly  used  in  this  country  for  the  test.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  way  this  test  is  applied :  All  the  openings 
of  the  pipes  on  roof,  except  one,  are  closed  up  tightly 
with  paper,  rags,  etc.  Into  the  one  open  pipe  is 
poured  from  2  to  4  ounces  of  peppermint-oil,  fol- 
lowed by  a  pail  of  hot  water,  and  then  the  pipe  into 
wdiich  the  oil  has  been  put  is  also  plugged  up.  This 
is  done  preferabh^  by  an  assistant.  The  inspector  then 
proceeds  to  slowly  follow  the  course  of  the  various 
pipes,  and  will  detect  the  smell  of  the  oil  wherever  it 
may  escape  from  any  defects  in  the  pipes.  If  the  test 
is  thoroughly  and  carefully  done,  if  care  is  taken  that 
no  fixture  in  the  house  is  used  and  the  traps  of  same 
not  disturbed  during  the  test,  if  the  openings  of  the 
pipes  on  the  roofs  are  plugged  up  tightly,  if  the  main 
house-trap  is  not  unsealed  (otherwise  the  oil  will  escape 
into  the  sewer),  and  if  the  handling  of  the  oil  has  been 
done  bv  an  assistant,  so  that  none  adheres  to  the  inspec- 
tor; if  all  these  conditions  are  carried  out,  the  pepper- 


DEFECTS  m  FLUMBINO. 


109 


mint  test  is  a  mobu  valuable  test  for  the  detection  of  any 
and  all  defects  in  plumbing.  Another  precaution  to  be 
taken  is  with  regard  to  the  rain-leader.  If  the  rain- 
leader  is  not  trapped,  or  if  its  trap  is  empty,  the  pepper- 
mint-oil may  escape  from  the  pipes  into  the  rain-leader. 
Care  must  be  taken,  therefore,  that  the  trap  at  the  base 
of  the  rain-leader  be»sealed;  or,  if  no  trap  is  existing,  to 
close  up  the  connection  of  the  rain-leader  with  the 
house-drain;  or,  if  this  be  impossible,  to  plug  up  the 
opening  of  the  leader  near  the  roof. 

Instead  of  putting  the  oil  into  the  opening  of  a  pipe 
on  the  roof,  it  may  be  put  through  a  fixture  on  the 
top  floor  of  the  house,  although  this  is  not  so  satisfac- 
tory. 

Various  appliances  have  been  manufactured  to  make 
this  test  more  easy  and  accurate.  Of  the  English 
appliances,  the  Banner  patent  drain-grenade,  and 
Kemp's  drain-tester  are  worthy  of  mention.  The  former 
consists  of  a  thin  glass  vial  charged  with  pungent  and 
volatile  chemicals.  One  of  the  grenades,  when  dropped 
down  any  suitable  pipe,  such  as  the  soil-pipe,  breaks,  or 
the  grenade  may  be  inserted  through  a  trap  into  the 
drain,  where  it  is  exploded.''  (Taylor.)  Kemp's  drain- 
tester  consists  of  a  glass  tube  containing  a  chemical 
with  a  strong  odor;  the  tube  is  fitted  with  a  glass  cover, 
held  in  place  by  a  spring  and  a  paper  band.  When  the 
tester  is  thrown  into  the  pipes  and  hot  water  poured 
after  it,  the  paper  band  breaks,  the  spring  opens  the 
cover,  and  the  contents  of  the  tube  fall  into  the  drain. 
Kecently  Dr.  W.  G.  Hudson,  an  inspector  in  the  Do- 


110 


UANDBOOK  ON  SAylTATION, 


partment  of  Health  of  IS^ew  York,  has  invented  a  verj 
ingenious  "  peppermint  cartridge  for  testing  plumb- 
ing. The  invention  is,  however^  not  yet  manufactured, 
and  is  not  on  the  market. 


PART  SECOND. 
SANITARY  PRACTICE. 


CHAPTEE  I. 
THE  TENEMENT-HOUSE  PROBLEM. 

"Man,  in  constructing  protection  from  exposure,  has  constructed 
conditions  of  disease.  In  an  age-  when  he  could  not  foresee  the 
results  of  his  own  work,  he  created  these  conditions,  and  it  is  not 
fair  to  blame  him,  because  he  did  not,  in  his  primitive  days,  know 
better.  "We  do  know  better  now,  and  it  is  our  fault  if  we  do  not 
improve  on  the  original  bad  work,  rectify  it  and  remove  intelligently 
the  evils  which,  from  deficient  intelligence,  have  been  so  long  per- 
petuated. This  should  be  the  uniform  object  of  the  sanitary  scholar. 
The  intention  (and  object)  of  domestic  sanitation  is  so  to  construct 
homes  for  human  beings,  or,  if  the  homes  be  constructed,  so  to  im- 
prove them,  that  the  various  diseases  and  ailments  incident  to  bad 
construction  may  be  removed  to  the  fullest  possible  extent." 

Benjamin  W.  Richardson,  in  Health  in  the  Home. 

The  above  words  of  Dr.  Richardson  are  the  quin- 
tessence of  the  tenement-house  problem  and  its  solution. 

In  ignorance,  in  folly,  and  in  carelessness,  society  had 
permitted  certain  conditions  to  exist  and  be  perpetu- 
ated; conditions  yitallj  affecting  life  and  health,  and 
which  have  been  allowed  to  become  a  fearful  menace  to 
social  prosperity. 

Ill 


112 


TIANBBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


In  the  relentless  march  of  nidustrial  progress  and 
the  fierce  struggle  for  commercial  superiority,  modern 
cities  have  developed  evils  which  threaten  to  undermine 
the  very  existence  of  urban  life,  and  have  created  con- 
ditions which  threaten  to  cause  the  extinction  of  these 
cities  by  depopulating  them  through  disease  and  plague, 
due  to  defective  sanitation. 

Owing  to  various  causes,  a  very  large  proportion  (in 
ISTew  York  State  71%,  according  to  the  last  census)  of 
the  population  of  the  country  is  concentrated  in  cities; 
a  great  part  of  the  city  inhabitants  is  herded  in  small, 
confined  areas;  the  majority  of  the  urban  population  is 
compelled  to  crowd  into  the  vast  barrack-like  structures 
called  tenements,  defective  in  construction,  unsanitary 
in  drainage,  faulty  in  condition,  and  lacking  in  light, 
air,  and  water — the  three  essentials  of  life. 

These  conditions  cause  the  large  average  mortality 
of  cities,  the  fearful  slaughter  of  innocent  infants  and 
children,  the  dw^arfing  of  the  constitutions  of  the  grow- 
ing generation,  the  spreading  of  infection  and  conta- 
gion, the  degenerating  of  the  intellectual  and  the  cor- 
rupting of  the  moral  life  of  the  community. 

The  houses  men  live  in  bear  an  intimate  relation 
with  soil,  light,  air,  water,  and  drainage;  and  the 
influence  of  these  upon  health  has  already  been  spoken 
of.  Moreover,  the  construction  of  houses,  overcrowd- 
ing, and  the  density  of  population,  have  each  a  direct 
influence  on  man's  health  and  longevity. 

Tuberculosis,  the  scourge  of  nations,  is  a  disease  of 
over-crowded  tenements;  typhoid  fever  is  a  disease  of 
defective  drainage ;  the  diarrhoeas  from  which,  so  many 


THE  TENEMEST-IIOUSE  PROBLEM. 


113 


thousands  of  babies  die  every  summer  are  tenement- 
house  diseases.  Rheumatism  is  a  disease  of  damp 
and  dark  dwellings;  smallpox,  scarlet  fever,  and  other 
human  plagues  spread  like  wildfire  in  crowded,  ill- 
constructed,  ill-ventilated,  badly-lighted,  and  miserable 
tenement  districts. 

There  are  blocks  in  !N^ew  York  City  with  one  thou- 
sand human  beings  to  the  square  acre.  There  are  blocks 
solidly  built  upon,  with  not  more  than  10%  space  left 
for  air  and  light.  There  are  barracks  (miscalled  houses) 
in  ^yhich  not  less  than  36  families  make  their  home. 
There  are  floors  in  25  X  100-lot  houses  with  6  families 
to  a  floor.  There  are  apartments  of  2  or  3  rooms  each, 
containing  10  to  15  persons. 

Where  there  is  such  density  of  population,  there 
cannot  be  suflicient  light,  air,  or  breathing  space ;  hence 
the  sanitary  conditions  are  often  horrible  beyond  de- 
scription, and  the  moral  pollution  vile  bey^ond  men- 
tion. 

Here  are  a  few  figures  from  statistics  on  the  influ- 
ence of  dwellings  upon  health. 

Dr.  Farr  gives  the  following  on  mortality  and  density 
of  population  (I^otter  and  Firth) : 

86  people  to  the  square  mile ....  14  in  1000 

172  "  VI 

255     "       "    20 

1128     "       "  "  23 

3399  "       "       "  26  " 


Dr.  Anderson,  Medical  Ofiicer  of  Dundee,  gives  the 
following  figures  on  the  comparative  death-rates  of 


114 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


inhabitants  of  one-,  two-,  three-,  and  four-room  apart- 
ments (Dr.  Sykes,  Brit.  Med.  Jour.) : 

One-room     apartments.  .  .  .  21.4  in  1000 
Two-room  "        ....  18.8  "  " 

Three-room  ....  17.2  " 

Four-room  ....  12.3  " 

According  to  the  Xew  York  Tenement  Eeport  of 
1894,  the  death-rate  in  Xew  York  in  the  First  Ward 
in  single  houses  on  one  lot  was  29.03;  and  in  lots 
where  there  were  front  and  rear  houses  the  death-rate 
reached  61.97  !  In  the  same  ward  the  death-rate  of 
children  under  5  years  of  age  reached,  in  the  former, 
109.58,  and  in  the  latter  the  terrible  rate  of  204.55  in 
a  thousand !  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  cite  more  figures 
to  prove  that  overcrowding  and  high  death-rate  walk 
hand  in  hand. 

The  tenement-house  is  an  offspring  of  municipal  neg- 
lect, of  overcrowding  in  small  areas,  of  industrial  ex- 
pansion, of  commercial  encroachment,  of  poverty  and 
destitution,  of  deficient  transportation,  and  of  the  ne- 
cessity of  the  working  classes  to  dwell  near  their  in- 
dustrial occupations. 

Originally,  the  tenement-houses  consisted  of  former 
private  dwellings,  whose  occupants,  being  crowded  out 
by  commerce  and  manufacture,  left  them  and  moved 
into  less  croAvded  locations,  leaving  their  houses  to  be 
occupied  by  the  less  fortunate,  who  were  compelled  to 
remain  near  their  work.  As  population  pressed  on, 
these  spacious  houses  were  divided  and  sub-divided 
without  any  control  or  regard  to  light  and  ventilation; 


THE  TENEMENT-HOUSE  PROBLEM.  115 


hence,  many  apartments  were  soon  overfilled,  and 
the  demand  for  such  homes  induced  the  wide-awake 
real-estate  men  to  build  houses  expressly  for  poor  ten- 
ants. That  these  buildings  were  constructed  v;ith  no 
regard  for  proper  sanitation,  etc.,  goes  without  say- 
ing; for  in  those  times  there  were  no  restricting  laws, 
and  every  builder  and  speculator  constructed  houses 
with  the  sole  idea  of  the  number  of  families  that  could 
possibly  be  crowded  in,  and  the  largest  amount  of  rent 
that  could  possibly  be  gotten  out  of  them. 

It  was  then  that  the  cry  of  the  philanthropists  went 
up  {vide  first  report  of  the  Committee  on  Housing 
of  the  Association  for  the  Improvement  of  the  Poor, 
1853) :  Pure  air,  light,  and  water,  being  indispensable 
to  health  and  life,  if  tenements  are  so  badly  constructed 
as  to  preclude  a  proper  supply  of  these  essential  ele- 
ments, the  laiv  should  interpose  for  the  protection  of 
the  sufferers,  and  either  close  up  such  dwellings,  or 
cause  them  to  be  remodelled  so  as  to  be  fit  for  human 
habitations.'' 

But  for  a  long,  a  very  long  time,  this  was  only 
a  cry  in  the  wilderness,  and  tenements  continued 
to  spring  up  without  regard  to  the  "  essential  elements." 
At  last,  in  the  middle  seventies,  a  law  was  passed  by  the 
State  legislature  restricting  uncontrolled  tenement  con- 
struction, and  from  that  time  onward  progressive 
changes  and  laws  were  made  in  behalf  of  tenement  im- 
provement; not,  however,  without  various  selfish  inter- 
ests interposing  hindrances,  objecting  to  the  so-called 
tyrannical  socialistic  tendencies  of  tenement  legislation, 
and  doing  all  possible  to  counteract  the  growing  ten- 


116 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


dency  for  tenement  reform.  But,  in  spite  of  all  these, 
the  better  elements  of  society  have  gained  the  upper 
hand,  and  the  evils  of  unsanitary  tenements  have  been 
curtailed  in  many  cities,  and  especially  in  I^ew  York, 
by  the  wise  and  beneficent  laws  of  1887,  1895,  and  by 
the  last  and  crowning  model  tenement-house  law  of 
1901. 

Hand  in  hand  with  those  beneficial  laws  are  the  pro- 
visions for  their  enforcement  by  the  proper  municipal 
departments. 

The  proper  solution  of  the  tenement-house  problem 
is,  therefore:  Legislation,  Restriction,  Strict  Super- 
vision, Careful  Inspection,  Constant  Vigilance  and  the 
rigid  and  impartial  enforcement  of  all  existing  laws  now 
on  the  statute  hooks;  and  last,  though  not  least,  the  incul- 
cating of  habits  of  personal  cleanliness  among  the 
masses  of  the  foreign  population,  who  constitute  so 
large  a  proportion  of  tenement-house  dwellers;  for 
there  is  no  doubt  that  lazy,  indolent,  dirty,  ignorant  or 
malicious  tenants  often  are  as  much  responsible  for  the 
unsanitary  conditions  existing  in  tenements  as  are  in- 
different, grasping  owners  or  lessees. 


r 


CHAPTEK  II. 


TENEMENT-HOUSES. 

Classes. — There  are  several  classes  of  tenements, 
according  to  their  construction,  tenants,  plumbing,  etc. 

The  definition  of  tenement is  as  follows  (Sec.  2, 
T.  11.  L.): 

"  A  tenement-house  is  any  house  or  building,  or  portion  thereof, 
which  is  rented,  leased,  let  or  hired  out,  to  be  occupied  as  the 
home  or  residence  of  three  families  or  more  living  independently 
of  each  other,  and  doing  their  cooking  upon  the  premises,  or  by 
more  than  two  families  upon  one  floor,  so  living  and  cooking,  but 
having  a  common  right  in  the  halls,  stairways,  yards,  water- 
closets  or  privies,  or  some  of  them." 

Under  this  heading  are  included  all  houses  having 
three  families  or  more;  therefore,  the  so-called  flats 
and  apartment-houses  are  tenement-houses  in  the  eyes 
of  the  law.  A  classification,  according  to  the  monthly 
rents  of  the  tenants,  has  been  made  by  the  law  (wher- 
ever the  law,  or  tenement-law,  etc.,  are  mentioned, 
the  New  York  tenement-house  law^  is  meant);  thus, 
houses,  the  apartments  of  which  average  a  monthly 
rental  of  more  than  $25,  are  not  required  to  be  in- 
spected every  month,  as  are  other  tenements. 

The  cheaper  tenement-houses  are  different  in  con- 

117 


118  HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATIO 

TYPES    OF  TENEMENT-HOUSES. 


BED 
ROOM 


BED 
ROOM 


LIVING  ROOM 


BED 
ROOM 


-SINK 

BED 
ROOM 


BED 
ROOM 


BED 
ROOM 


BED 
ROOM 


BED 
ROOM 


Fig.  28. 

1.  Front  and  rear  bouse      2.  Type   of  tenement- 
on  one  lot.  house  without  light 

or  ventilation,  except 
in  outer  rooms. 
(From  Report  of  the  Tenement-liouse  Commission,  1894.) 


TENEMElsr-HO  USES. 
TYPES    OF    T  E  N  E  M  E  N  T  -  H  0  U  S  E  S. 


LIVING  ROOM 


BED 
ROOM 


BED 
ROOM 


.SINK 


LIVING  ROOM 


LIVING  ROOM 


D-- 


-•c 


BED 
ROOM 


LIVING  ROOM 


Fig.  28. 

3.  Type  of  tenement,  4.  Tvpicn!  double  decker 
showins:  introduction  of  of  the  old  f5tyle.  cover- 
light  shaft.  ing  90  per  cent  of  the 

lot. 

(From  Report  of  the  Teuemeut  house  Commission,  1894.) 


120 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


TYPES    0  F    T  E  N  E  :M  E  X  T  -  H  U  U  S  E  S. 


Fig.  28. 

5  and  6.  Improved  teuement-houses  after  1879. 
(From  Report  of  the  Tenement-liouse  Commission,  1894.) 


TENEMENT-UO  USES. 


121 


struction,  according  to  their  age  and  the  laws  under 
which  they  were  constructed.  Hence  the  variety  in 
tenement-house  construction,  as  seen  in  the  floor-plans 
of  the  principal  classes  of  these  buildings. 

Tenements  may  be  classified  also  according  to  their 
plumbing:  such  as  houses  mthout  plumbing  at  all; 
houses  with  water  service  and  sinks  in  halls  only  ;  houses 
with  sinks  in  rooms  and  privy  accommodations  in  halls, 
and  houses  with  both  ^\ithin  the  apartments. 

Sites.  — Tenement-house  dwellers  can  hardly  choose 
the  site  upon  which  the  house  they  live  in  is  situated. 
The  same  conditions  which  cause  the  laboring  man  to 
live  in  overcrowded  portions  of  the  city,  also  compel 
him  to  live  in  certain  streets,  blocks  and  houses,  with- 
out regard  to  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  site — prox- 
imity to  his  work  and  the  amount  of  rent  he  is  able  to 
pay  being  the  determining  factors.  The  ground  upon 
which  the  house  is  situated  has  a  great  influence  on 
the  health  of  the  occupant,  but  the  tenant  is  com- 
pelled to  take  what  is  offered  without  any  choice  on 
his  part.  Houses  built  upon  made  land  and  upon  marshy 
soil  are,  as  a  rule,  damp  and  unhealthy.  Cities  with 
river  fronts  have  shores  which  are  usually  low,  hence  a 
certain  part  of  the  city  ground  formerly  covered  by 
water  may  have  been  regained  by  being  filled  in  with 
rubbish  and  refuse.  Houses  on  such  land  are  usually 
damp,  unless  the  most  scientific  precautions  have  been 
taken  during  their  construction;  but,  as  this  is  seldom 
the  case,  and,  as  in  a  great  many,  if  not  most,  of  these 
houses,  the  cellars  are  not  concreted,  it  follows  that 
they  are  damp,  and  at  times  full  of  water.  Certain 


122 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


streets  in  ISTew  York  City,  such  as:  South,  Water, 
Front,  Cherry,  Broad,  West,  Washington,  Greenwich 
(partly).  Tenth  and  Eleventh  Avenues,  Lewis,  Goereck, 
Mangin,  etc.,  are  wdiolly  or  partly  on  made  ground;  and 
a  great  many  other  places  were  originally  marsh  land 
and  watercourses  subsequently  filled  in.  That  houses 
built  on  these  sites  cannot  be  as  healthy  as  those  built 
upon  rocky  or  upon  meadow  land,  is  obvious. 

Construction. — The  proper  construction,  that  is,  the 
masonry,  carpentry,  and  brickwork,  etc.,  of  the  tene- 
ment-house is  important,  but  as  a  great  many,  if  not  the 
majority,  of  tenements  are  built  by  speculators,  good 
workmanship  cannot  be  expected,  and  the  houses  are 
damp,  with  walls  cracking,  ceilings  peeling  and  falling, 
roofs  leaking,  plumbing  out  of  order,  etc. 

Percentage  of  Lot  Occupied. — The  common  25  X 
100-ft.  [N'ew  York  lot  is,  as  a  rule,  well  built  upon,  only 
so  much  of  it  being  left  as  is  absolutely  demanded  by 
law.  The  1901  law  prescribes  that  only  70%  of  an 
ordinary  lot  and  90%  of  a  corner  lot  may  be  built  upon. 

Protection  against  Fire. — The  law  (see  Part  4) 
contains  some  model  and  progressive  points  in  this  direc- 
tion. An  important  condition  mentioned  therein  is  the 
number,  position,  and  condition  of  the  fire-escapes. 

Warming. — The  cheaper  classes  of  tenements  have 
no  heating  arrangements  for  the  whole  house,  each 
apartment  being  heated  by  stoves  or  ranges  belonging  to 
the  tenant  or  landlord.  As  the  apartments  are  of  three 
or  four  rooms,  commonly  in  one  row,  with  the  stoves 
situated  in  the  kitchen,  the  result  is  that  the  rooms  are 
disproportionately  heated,  the  kitchen  being  super- 


TENEMENT-HO  USES. 


123 


heated,  and  the  rest  of  the  rooms  too  cold,  necessitating 
their  being  closed  np  in  mnter.  The  better  class  of 
houses  have  hot-water  or  steam  heating,  either  for  the 
halls  alone  or  for  the  rooms  as  well.  A  nuisance  often 
complained  of  with  regard  to  steam  heating  is  the  noise 
(water-hammer)  made  by  air  and  w^ater  lodged  in  pipes. 
This  difficulty  is  obviated  by  having  the  flow^-  and  the 
return-pipes  carried  in  as  direct  a  line  as  possible,  and 
having  the  coils  on  the  return-pipes. 

Lighting. — Excepting  corner  houses,  most  tene- 
ments get  their  light  only  from  their  street  side,  the 
rear  being  obstructed  by  the  houses  on  the  adjacent  lots 
of  the  next  street,  the  intervening  space  being  filled 
with  washlines  and  drying  clothes.  The  kitchen  and 
bedrooms  are  commonly  lighted  by  air-shafts  and  courts, 
which  give  only  a  dim  light,  and  that  only  for  the 
apartments  in  the  upper  stories.  The  halls  are  lighted 
by  skylights,  and  a  great  many  houses  have  no 
other  light  in  the  halls,  as  the  number  of  tenements 
with  windows  in  lialls,  is  not  as  yet  in  the  majority. 
Some  old  houses  have  entirely  dark  halls,  and  it  is  . in 
those  houses,  as  a  rule,  that  the  sinks  are  in  the  halls 
and  are  used  in  common  by  the  four  families  on  the 
floor.  The  artificial  light  commonly  used  in  halls  is 
illuminating  gas,  although  there  are  yet  a  number  of 
houses  which  have  not  even  this  improvement.  Tlie 
illuminating-gas  pipes  are  sometimes  a  source  of  nui- 
sance by  leakage  therefrom.  The  defects  should  be 
immediately  repaired. 

Ventilation. — Xo  special  provision  is  made  for  ven- 
tilating tenement-houses,  the  windows,  doors,  and  chim- 


124: 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


nevs  serving  as  the  natural  means  of  tenement  venti- 
lation. There  are  a  number  of  houses  where  there 
are  rooms  that  have  no  mndows  whatever  except 
those  opening  into  the  adjacent  room.  However,  the 
day  of  these  houses  and  rooms  has  passed,  and  the  law 
at  present  requires  that  every  room  must  have  windows 
of  certain  dimensions  exposed  to  the  outer  air.  Cellars 
are  ventilated  by  windows,  gratings,  and  doors.  Water- 
closet  apartments  need  good  ventilation,  but  many  of 
these  apartments  in  old  houses  are  not  ventilated 
at  all,  or  have  a  makeshift  of  a  narrow  sheet-metal  tube 
12  inches  square — an  outlet  entirely  inadequate  for 
the  purpose.  The  law  now  compels  owners  to  ventilate 
water-closet  apartments  by  windows  of  ample  dimen- 
sions, and  these  apartments  must  have  a  certain  area- 
space,  a  requirement  not  heretofore  enforced.  The 
areas  of  yards,  courts,  air-shafts,  etc.,  have  all  been 
increased  by  the  law  with  a  view  to  improving  the 
ventilation  of  tenements.  The  ventilation  of  rooms 
depends  on  their  size  (floor  area)  and  cubic  feet  of  air- 
space. If  the  rooms  are  too  small,  or  are  overcrowded, 
no  natural  change  of  air,  sufficient  to  clear  the  confined 
space  from  the  impurities  due  to  respiration,  is  pos- 
sible. 

"  In  every  tenement-house  hereafter  erected,  all  rooms  except 
water-closet  and  bath  apartments  shall  have  the  following  sizes: 
In  each  apartment  there  shall  be  at  least  one  room  containing  at 
least  120  square  feet  of  floor  area,  and  each  other  apartment 
shall  contain  at  least  70  square  feet  of  floor-space.  Each  room 
shall  be  in  eveiy  part  not  less  than  9  feet  high.  .  ,  .  Xo  room 
which  does  not  open  with  a  window  into  the  street,  yard,  or 
shaft  of  at  least  25  square  feet  in  area,  shall  be  occupied,  unless 


TmEMENT-nO  USES. 


125 


such  room  contains  at  least  00  square  feet  of  floor-space,  and  also 
600  cubic  feet  of  air-space,  and  no  such  room  shall  be  occupied 
unless  there  are  600  cubic  feet  of  air  to  each  individual  occupy- 
ing it." 

These  provisions  of  the  law,  although  they  do  not 
solve  the  problem  of  ventilation  of  tenements,  are  in 
the  right  direction,  and  will  do  much  to  alleviate  the 
sufferings  of  the  tenement-dweller  gasping  for  air. 

Water-supply. — Owners  of  houses  are  compelled  to 
furnish  an  adequate  supply  of  water  for  all  domestic 
purposes,  and  each  and  every  floor  must  be  provided 
with  proper  fixtures  to  distribute  it.  In  some  old 
houses  the  main  water-service  pipe,  originally  intended 
for  one  family,  is  made  to  serve  for  a  number  of  fam- 
ilies, and  is  inadequate,  not  being  sufficient  to  supply 
water  to  the  upper  floors.  The  remedy  is  a  water-pipe  of 
larger  size.  In  houses  of  4  or  more  stories  the  ordinary 
street  pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  raise  the  water  to  the 
upper  floors,  and  it  is  then  necessary  to  instal  gas,  gas- 
oline or  steam-engines  to  pump  water  into  tanks  above 
the  highest  floor,  from  whence  it  is  supplied  to  the 
upper  floors.  These  tanks  may  become  a  source  of 
nuisance,  as  they  may  leak  and  cause  dampness  of  ceil- 
ings of  the  upper  story,  or  furnish  dirty  water  from  sedi- 
ments and  dirt  gaining  access  thereto.  Tanks  should 
be  properly  constructed,  water-tight,  well  covered,  ac- 
cessible, easily  cleaned,  and  frequently  emptied, 
scrubbed  and  cleaned.  The  overflow  from  the  tank 
must  not  discharge  into  the  rain-leader,  or  into  other 
house-pipes,  but  should  be  led  down  into  the  cellar  to 
discharge  into  a  sink.  The  washers  on  the  water-fau- 
cets must  be  renewed  once  in  a  while  to  prevent  leakage. 


126 


IIAXDBOOK  OX  SAXITATION. 


Plumbing.— The  plumbing  of  a  tenement-house 
does  not  differ  from  the  hoiise-plmnbing  described  in 
the  first  part;  except  in  so  far  as  the  tenement-houses 
are  built  for  poor  people  and  all  the  materials,  plumb- 
ing included,  are  of  inferior  grades,  and  the  workman- 
ship cheaper  and  inferior. 

One  of  the  most  dangerous  defects  in  tenement- 
house  plumbing  is  the  old  brick  or  earthenware  house- 
drains.  These  drains  are  too  large,  laid  without  any 
fall,  and  situated  underground,  with  the  joints  unsup- 
ported and  broken,  and  with  great  holes  here  and  there 
— the  whole  a  channel  of  indescribable  filth,  giving  off 
miasmatic  efiluvia,  saturating  the  cellar-ground  with 
liquid  sewage,  poisoning  the  air  in  cellar  and  house,  and 
causing  disease  and  pestilence.  Whenever  such  drains 
are  found  they  should  be  ordered  out,  as  even  the  best 
of  them  are  not  mthout  danger,  and  the  law  now  pro- 
hibits any  but  extra  heavy  iron  pipe-drains  in  houses. 
There  is  scarcely  an  earthenware  house-drain  that  will 
stand  a  properly  applied  test. 

The  iron  house-drains  in  tenements  are  often  under- 
ground, owing  to  the  presence  of  fixtures  in  the  cellar; 
in  such  a  case  an  examination  of  the  house-drain  is  not 
possible  without  a  test.  Plumbers  in  cleaning  house- 
drains  of  obstructions  are  in  the  habit  of  leaving  open 
holes  in  the  drains,  or,  if  they  take  the  trouble  to  close 
the  holes,  they  do  so  with  sheet-metal,  putty,  or  cement, 
or  sometimes  mth  only  a  rag  tied  around  the  pipe. 
These  openings  are  a  means  of  escape  for  sewer-air. 
They  should  be  closed  gas-tight  with  iron  bands,  patent 
saddle-hubs,  or  screw-nuts.   The  covers  of  the  handholes 


TENEMENT-UO  USES. 


127 


of  traps  on  house-drains  should  be  gas-tight  adjusted. 
Very  frequently  there  will  be  found  connected  with  the 
house-drain  the  overflow  pipes  from  refrigerators^  roof- 
tanks,  waste-pipes  from  stores,  pressure-pumps  from 
beer-saloons,  etc.  All  such  pipes  must  be  disconnected 
from  the  house-drain,  the  opening  at  the  disconnected 
place  closed  gas-tight,  and  the  waste-pipes  made  to  dis- 
charge into  a  sewer-connected,  properly-trapped,  water- 
supplied  open  sink. 

Sinks  and  water-closets  are  often  found  in  cellars, 
and,  apart  from  the  fact  that  such  fixtures  ought  neA^er 
to  have  been  put  there,  they  are  hardly  ever  used,  and 
their  seals  have  evaporated,  allowing  sewer-gas  to  enter 
the  cellar  through  the  empty  trap.  Such  disused  fix- 
tures should  be  removed  and  disconnected. 

Traps  of  fixtures  are  not  yet  vented  in  every  house, 
hence  syphonage  is  rather  a  common  occurrence.  The 
soil-  and  main  waste-pipes  are  not  always  extended  above 
the  roof,  and,  when  extended,  are  often  fitted  with  re- 
turn-bends and  cowls.  A  common  defect  in  tenement- 
house  plumbing  is  the  improper  joint-connection  of 
pipes,  putty  and  cement  joints  being  frequent.  In  some 
■louses  the  traps  are  of  quite  an  antiquated  form,  bottle 
and  other  old  traps  being  occasionally  found.  Holes  in 
traps,  in  waste-pipes,  and  in  all  other  pipes,  abound, 
and  are  either  left  open  or  are  closed  with  putty,  dough, 
or  rags.  The  sinks  have  woodwork  enclosing  them  be- 
neath and  around,  the  spaces  within  such  enclosures 
being  exceedingly  foul  and  filthy;  as  have  also  water- 
closets,  which  are  the  most  abused  fixtures  in  the  house. 
So  many  people  use,  so  many  more  abuse,  and  so  few 


12S 


HANDBOOK  OX  SAXITATIOX, 


clean,  them,  it  is  no  wonder  at  all  that  water-closets  are 
masses  of  filth  and  that  they  poison  the  air.  In  some 
houses  the  water-closets  are  situated"  in  cellars.  Of  the 
school-sinks  I  have  already  spoken.  The  long  Philadel- 
phia hopper  closets,  those  especially  with  a  spiral  flush, 
are  a  nuisance,  as  they  are  never  clean,  nor  well  flushed. 
Pan  closets  are  not  so  frequent  in  tenements,  thanks 
to  sanitary  inspectors,  who  order  them  out  as  soon  as 
they  discover  them. 

There  are  a  great  many  ways  in  which  plumbing  may 
be  defective,  as  we  have  seen  in  Part  L,  and  the  only 
remedy  is  to  be  constantly  on  guard,  inspect  the  plumb- 
ing frequently,  and  have  it  put  in  proper  condition  by 
licensed  plumbers. 

Cellars. — The  cellar  of  a  tenement-house  is  an  im- 
portant adjunct,  and  the  location  of  a  great  many  nui- 
sances, some  of  which  have  been  already  mentioned. 
Formerly  basements  and  cellars  were  terms  often  in- 
terchangeable; the  law  now  makes  a  distinction,  how- 
ever, and  defines  both  as  follows: 

"  A  basement  is  a  story  partly  but  not  more  than  one-half  be- 
low the  level  of  the  curb." 

"  A  cellar  is  a  story  more  than  one-half  below  the  level  of  the 
curb." 

The  other  points  of  the  law  in  regard  to  cellars  are 
as  follows: 

"  The  floor  of  the  cellar,  or  lowest  floor  of  every  tenement-house, 
shall  be  water-tight,  and  the  cellar  ceilings  shall  be  plastered.  The 
cellar  walls  and  ceilings  shall  be  thoroughly  whitewashed  or 
painted  a  light  color  by  the  owner  at  least  once  a  year." 


TENEMENT-HO  USES. 


129 


Cellars,  as  a  rule,  oiiglit  not  to  be  occupied  for  living 
or  sleeping  purposes,  although  a  great  many  of  them 
are.  The  conditions  of  living  in  basements  of  new 
houses  are  defined  by  the  law  as  follows.  [For  con- 
ditions of  living  in  cellars  of  old  houses  see  Tenement 
Law.  ] 

1.  Such  room  shall  be  at  least  eight  feet  high  in  every  part 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling. 

2.  The  ceiling  of  such  room  shall  be  in  every  part  at  least  two 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  street  or  ground  outside  of  or  adjoin- 
ing the  same. 

3.  There  shall  be  appurtenant  to  such  room  the  use  of  a  separate 
water-closet. 

4.  There  shall  be  outside  of  and  adjoining  such  room,  and  ex- 
tending along  the  entire  frontage  thereof,  an  open  space  of  at 
least  two  feet  six  inches  wide  in  every  part.  The  bottom  of  said 
space  shall  be  at  least  six  inches  below  the  level  of  the  floor  of 
the  room,  and  such  space  shall  be  well  and  efi"ectually  drained  by 
a  drain  the  bottom  of  which  shall  be  at  least  one  foot  below  the 
level  of  the  floor  of  the  room. 

5.  Such  room  shall  have  a  window  or  windows  opening  to  the 
outer  air  of  at  least  nine  feet  square  in  size  clear  of  the  sash 
frame  and  at  least  four  and  one-half  square  feet  of  which  shall 
have  been  made  to  readily  open  for  purposes  of  ventilation. 

Cellars,  in  a  great  many  houses,  are  not  cemented  at 
all,  and  frequently  are  damp,  and,  when  near  shores,  are 
partly  or  wholly  full  of  water. 

The  causes  of  water  in  cellars  are  many,  and  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  find  the  source  of  the  water. 
The  following  are  the  main  causes  of  water  in  cellars : 

1.  Ground-ivater.  If  cellars  are  not  completely  dis- 
connected from  the  ground  by  concrete,  etc.,  the 
ground- water,  if  at  a  high  level,  may  enter  the  cellar. 

2.  Tide-water.  The  tide,  when  at  high  pressure,  may 
back  up  into  the  cellar  through  the  sewer  and  drain- 
pipes. 

3.  Spring-water.  Hidden  springs  may  crop  out  in 
the  cellar. 


130 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


4.  Surface  drainage.  Some  surface  pond,  pool,  or 
collection  of  rain-water,  etc.,  may  be  near  a  cellar,  and 
the  water  therefrom  drain  into  the  cellar. 

5.  Leaks  in  water-service  pipes ^  either  near  or  within 
the  honse. 

6.  Leaks  in  sewer-pipes,  either  near  or  within  the 
house;  sometimes  from  hopper  closets  or  school-sinks  in 
adjoining  houses. 

The  character  of  the  water  in  cellars  must  be  ana- 
lyzed, if  its  source  is  unknown,  to  discover  whether  the 
liquid  comes  from  the  sewer  or  water-pipes.  Defects 
in  sewers  and  sewer-connected  fixtures  can  also  be  dis- 
covered by  putting  into  the  suspected  sewers  or  fixtures 
some  coloring  matter,  as  uranine  or  fuchsine,  and 
watching  for  the  appearance  of  the  color  in  the  cellar- 
water. 

The  remedy  for  water  in  the  cellar  is  the  removing 
of  the  cause  and  making  the  cellar  water-tight. 

Overcrowding.  — Apartments  or  rooms  within  a  house 
are  sometimes,  especially  at  night,  occupied  by  too  many 
people  in  proportion  to  the  floor  and  cubic  space,  hence 
night  inspections  are  undertaken  by  the  proper  author- 
ities to  determine  the  number  of  occupants,  and  to 
measure  the  space  in  rooms. 

"Sec.  112.  No  room  in  any  tenement-house  shall  be  so  over- 
crowded that  there  shall  be  afi'orded  less  than  400  cubic  feet  of  air 
to  each  adult,  and  200  cubic  feet  of  air  to  each  child  under  12  years 
of  age  occupying  such  room;  and  no  apartment  in  any  tenement- 
house  shall  be  so  overcrowded  that  there  shall  be  afforded  in  the 
living  rooms  and  bedrooms  of  said  apartment  lessi  tlian  600  cm\)\o 
feet  of  air  to  each  individual." 


TENEMENT-HO  USES. 


131 


Condition. — matter  how  well  constructed  the  ten- 
ement-house may  be,  if,  after  construction,  the  house 
is  not  properly  taken  care  of,  it  will  become  dilapidated, 
filthy  and  offensive.  A  strict  supervision  over  and  care 
of  the  yard,  fixtures,  etc.,  are  essential  to  the  house  be- 
ing fit  to  live  in,  and  therefore  the  law  not  only  calls  for 
proper  cleaning  of  the  house  and  its  several  parts,  but 
also  that,  in  each  and  every  tenement-house,  there 
should  reside  a  housekeeper,  whose  sole  duty  it  should 
be  to  take  care  of  the  house,  clean  all  its  parts,  and  ex- 
ercise supervision  over  it. 

Yards  in  tenement-houses  are  usually  very  small,  and 
are  greatly  abused.  In  a  space  of  10-12  X  25  feet  will 
often  be  found  the  yard  hoppers  or  school-sink;  and 
the  space  is  filled  by  the  inevitable  clothes-lines.  The 
yard  should  be  properly  cemented  or  flagged,  and  so 
graded  as  to  discharge  all  surface-water  into  a  properly 
trapped,  sewer-connected,  drain.  The  yard  should  be 
swept  clean,  and  kept  free  from  rubbish. 

Tlie  Air-shafts,  Courts,  and  Areas  should  be  properly 
paved,  graded,  and  drained,  and  should  be  kept  clean. 
The  fresh-aif"  inlet  in  the  front  area,  or  in  front  side- 
walk, should  be  kept  clear  of  all  obstructions. 

The  Cellar.  Even  the  best-constructed  cellar  will 
become  offensive  if  not  properly  taken  care  of.  The 
floor  of  the  cellar  should  not  be  broken,  as  the  holes 
become  receptacles  for  dirt,  and  the  walls  and  ceiling 
should  be  whitewashed  or  painted  frequently.  The 
cellar-floor  is  to  be  drained  when  the  house-drain  is  un- 
derground, the  drain  to  be  trapped  with  a'  syphon  trap 
provided  with  very  deep  seal  to  prevent  evaporation. 


132 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


The  cellar  should  be  cleaned  of  all  offensive  refuse  and 
rubbishj  and  be  frequently  disinfected. 

The  Halls  of  tenements  are,  as  a  rule,  dark  and 
dreary,  dimly  lighted  by  day,  and  little  more  so  by 
night.  The  law  relating  to  lights  at  night  in  halls  is  as 
follows : 

"  In  every  tenement-house  a  proper  light  shall  be  kept  burning 
by  the  owner  in  the  public  hallways,  near  the  stairs,  upon  the 
entrance  floor,  and  upon  the  second  floor  "above  the  entrance  floor 
of  said  house,  every  night  from  sunset  to  sunrise  throughout  the 
year,  and  upon  all  other  floors  from  sunset  till  10  p.  m." 

The  rails  and  balusters  of  stairs  should  be  secure  and 
in  good  repair,  and  the  wainscoting  and  floors  of  the 
halls  shall  be  well  kept  and  frequently  scrubbed  and 
cleaned.  The  practice  of  papering  walls  of  halls  is  per- 
nicious; a  light-colored  paint  being  the  best  covering 
over  walls  and  ceilings  of  halls,  as  well  as  of  water- 
closet  apartments. 

The  Water-closet  ,Apartme7it  should  be  well  looked 
after,  as  it  is  the  place  most  likely  to  be  dirty  in  a  ten- 
ement-house. The  floor  should  be  clean,  and  must  be 
of  an  impervious  material.  The  floor,  seats,  walls,  ceil- 
ings, windows,  etc.,  should  be  frequently  cleaned. 

The  Roofs  of  tenement-houses  require  great  care,  and 
should  be  clean  and  free  from  defects  and  leaks.  Guard- 
rails should  protect  the  roof  on  all  sides,  and  the  eaves- 
gutters  should  be  in  good  repair  and  tight;  the  whole 
roof  should  be  painted  once  a  year.  The  chimney,  pipes, 
and  tank  on  roof  also  should  be  kept  in  good  condition. 

The  Plumhing  Fivtures  have  often  beer  alluded  to 
jilready,  and  nothing  remains  but  to  emphasize  the  fact 


TENEMENT-RO  USES. 


133 


that,  of  all  parts  of  the  house,  the  plumbing  and  plumb- 
ing fixtures  must  be  constantly  watched,  that  all  defects 
may  be  promptly  repaired,  and  cleanliness  exercised  to 
the  utmost. 

The  Rooms  should  be  clean,  the  walls  and  ceilings 
painted,  and  floors  scrubbed;  the  windows  should  be 
easily  opened  and  cleaned,  and  often  left  open  to  change 
the  air  in  the  rooms. 


CHAPTER  in. 


PRIVATE  DWELLINGS. 

Houses  built  for  one  or  two  families  are,  as  a  rule,  of 
better  construction  than  tenement-houses,  but  there  is 
a  large  number  of  old  houses  which  were  built  years 
ago,  and  which  are  in  a  bad  sanitary  condition,  that  are 
used  as  private  dwellings. 

The  points  especially  to  be  looked  after  by  the  in- 
spector examining  private  dwellings  are  the  cellar  and 
the  plumbing. 

The  cellar  is,  as  a  rule,  large  and  spacious,  but  is 
usually  filled  with  rubbish  and  refuse,  and  the  floor 
is  rarely  a  cemented  one.  The  antiquated  hot-air  fur- 
nace so  often  found  in  the  cellars  of  private  houses  is 
a  cause  of  frequent  complaint,  as  it  is  hardly  ever  in 
good  order,  is  badly  constructed,  the  joints  not  being 
tight,  the  flues  and  air-conduits  defective,  the  cold-air 
box  in  the  wrong  place,  and  the  whole  a  source  of  smoke 
and  coal-gas.  The  servants'  closet  (usually  an  old  pan 
closet)  is'jlocated  in  the  cellar;  the  house-drain  is  under- 
ground, and  either  of  earthenware  or  of  brick.  The 
cellar,  as  a  whole,  is  a  repository  for».sewer-air  and  a 
breeding-place  for  disease  germs. 

The  plumbing  in  old  private  houses  is  sometimes  so 
complicated  and  so  full  of  defects  that  it  is  at  times 
a  matter  of  difiiculty  to  examine  it.    The  reason  for 

134 


PRIVATE  DWELLINGS, 


135 


this  is  that  these  old  houses  have  been  subjected  to 
the  bungling  of  several  generations  of  plumbers,  each 
trying  to  remedy  certain  evils,  but  instead  adding  to 
them  by  some  new  complicated  by-pass,"  connection, 
etc.  The  wash-basins  in  the  many  bedrooms  may 
be  a  convenience,  but  they  are  certainly  additional 
means  of  allowing  sewer-air  to  enter  the  house.  These 
wash-basins  ar-e  all  over  the  house,  irrespective  of  the 
location  of  the  main  waste-pipe,  and  consequently  re- 
quire the  running  of  long,  horizontal,  lead  branch-pipes 
under  the  floor,  with  the  likelihood  of  these  being 
gnawed  by  rats  and  broken  into  by  nails.  The  wash- 
basins are  also  left  unused  for  long  periods,  and  the 
traps  consequently  lose  their  water-seal  by  evaporation, 
thus  permitting  the  escape  of  sewer-air  from  the  drain. 
Vent-pipes  are  not  often  found,  and  syphoning  is  fre- 
quent. Private  dwellings  are  the  places  where  the  pan 
water-closet  is  still  frequently  found;  nor  is  the  exten- 
sion of  vertical  pipes  the  rule  in  these  old  houses. 

Altogether  the  sanitary  condition  of  many  old  dwell- 
ings is  deplorable;  and  as  the  municipal  authorities  are 
mostly  occupied  looking  after  tenement-houses,  the 
private  dwellings  receive  little  or  no  attention  unless 
some  disease  breaks  out,  or  some  tenant  has  the  courage 
to  complain  to  the  proper  department. 

Right  here  it  is  proper  to  remark  that  unsanitary 
conditions  are  found  alike  in  the  palace  and  in  the 
hovel;  it  is  a  difference  of  degree  rather  than  of  kind 
— often  the  result  of  ignorance  of  those  primal  truths, 
easy  of  comprehension, — truths,  the  application  of 
which  it  has  been  our  object,  in  this  book,  to  elucidate. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


LODGING-HOUSES. 

"A  lodging-liouse  is  a  house  or  building,  or  portion  thereof,  in 
which  persons  are  harbored  or  received,  or  lodged  for  hire  for  a 
single  night,  or  for  less  than  one  week  at  a  time;  or  any  part  of 
which  is  let  for  any  persons  to  sleep  in  for  a  term  less  than  a  week." 
N.  Y.  San.  Code. 

This  is  the  official  definition  of  a  lodging-house,  and, 
although  applicable  also  to  hotels,  is  meant  for  the 
cheap  lodging-houses  used  by  the  transient  population 
of  cities,  and  especially  of  the  poorer  class.  Lodg- 
ing-houses are  under  the  supervision  of  the  sanitary 
authorities;  and  their  construction,  maintenance,  and 
keeping  are  under  the  surveillance  of  the  inspectors  of 
lodging-houses.    The  1^.  Y.  San.  Code  insists  that 

"  Beds  in  all  lodging-houses  shall  be  separated  by  a  passage- 
way of  not  less  than  2  feet  horizontally,  and  the  beds  shall  be  so 
arranged  that  under  each  of  them  the  air  shall  freely  circulate,  and 
there  shall  be  adequate  ventilation.  Four  hundred  cubic  feet  (400) 
of  space  shall  be  provided  and  allowed  for  each  bed  or  lodger." 

The  following  regulations  of  the  Boston  Board  of 
Health  are  quite  explicit  in  regard  to  lodging-houses 
(Chapin) : 

"  1)  The  means  of  light  and  ventilation  must  be  satisfactory  to 
the  Board  of  Health,  and  beyond  control  of  the  lodgers. 

"  2)  All  floors  and  stairways  must  be  sound,  sniooth,  and  either 
painted  or  shellacked. 


LODOING'IIO  USES. 


137 


"3)  Air-space  300  (in  New  York  400)  cubic  feet. 
"4)  Open  and  spacious  dormitories  are  preferred. 
"  5)  Single  rooms  must  have  fire-proof  partitions. 
"  6)  No  carpets  allowed  on  floors  or  stairs. 

"  7)  No  less  than  2  horizontal  feet  between  sides  of  any  2  beds. 
"  8)  Bedsteads  must  be  single  and  of  iron. 
"9)  Blankets  required,  comforters  prohibited. 
"  10)  Mattresses  to  be  covered  with  fire-proof  covering. 
"11)  No  one  is  allowed  to  sleep  in  his  day  clothing. 
"  12)  Unclean  persons  must  take  a  bath  before  retiring. 
"13)  Water-closets  (one  to  every  20  lodgers),  lavatories,  and 
shower  baths,  with  hot  and  cold  water,  all  with  open  plumbing, 
must  be  furnished  on  each  floor,  and  floors  to  same  must  be  of 
marble,  slate,  or  concrete." 

Lodging-houses  are  frequently  inspected  at  night. 
The  following  extract  is  from  the  ^^ew  York  City 
charter : 

DIMENSIONS  AND  VENTILATION  OF  ROOMS. 
"Sec.  1316.  In  every  such  house  hereafter  erected  or  converted 
every  habitable  room,  except  rooms  in  the  attic,  shall  be  in  every 
part  not  less  than  8  feet  in  height  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling; 
and  every  habitable  room  in  the  attic  of  any  such  building  shall  be 
at  least  8  feet  in  height  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  throughout 
not  less  than  one-half  the  area  of  such  room.  Every  such  room 
shall  have  at  least  one  window  connecting  with  the  external  air,  or 
over  the  door  a  ventilator  of  perfect  construction,  connecting  it 
with  a  room  or  hall  which  has  a  connection  with  the  external  air, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  produce  a  cross-current  of  air.  The  total' 
area  of  window  or  windows  in  every  room  communicating  with  the 
external  air  shall  be  at  least  one-tenth  of  the  superficial  area  of 
every  such  room ;  and  the  top  of  one,  at  least,  of  such  windows  shall 
not  be  less  than  7  feet  6  inches  above  the  floor,  and  the  upper  half 
at  least,  shall  be  made  so  as  to  open  the  full  width.  Every  habit- 
able room  of  a  less  area  than  100  superficial  feet,  if  it  does  not  com- 
municate directly  with  the  external  air,  and  is  without  an  open 
fire-place,  shall  be  provided  with  special  means  of  ventilation,  by 
a  separate  air-shaft  extending  to  the  roof,  or  otherwise,  as  the 
Pojud  of  Health  may  prescribe.'"' 


CHAPTEE  Y. 


SWEAT-SHOPS. 

In  large  cities,  owing  to  the  overcrowding  and  pov- 
erty of  the  foreign  population,  a  great  many  industries 
are  being  pursued  in  the  homes  of  the  working  people, 
thus  adding  to  the  general  unhealthy  conditions  of  the 
houses  of  the  poor  the  evils  peculiar  to  the  various  un- 
sanitary industries.  Tailoring  in  its  various  branches, 
necktie-making,  cigarmaking,  and  kindred  industries 
have  been  taken  up  by  the  Italians,  Hebrews,  Hun- 
garians, and  other  foreigners,  and  the  air  of  the  tene- 
ment-house, already  overladen  with  impurities,  is 
further  poisoned  by  dust,  dirt,  and  the  unwholesome  in- 
gredients of  the  individual  manufactures;  often  one 
room  serves  as  working-,  sleeping-,  cooking-,  and  living- 
place.  That  such  conditions  are  dangerous  to  health  is 
conceded  by  all;  but  these  so-called  sweat-shops  are 
also  dangerous,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  they  are  the 
means  by  which  various  diseases  are .  disseminated  and 
spread  broadcast  among  the  people  handling  and  buying 
these  sweat-shop-made  goods. 

Various  law^s  have  from  time  to  time  been  enacted 
to  confine,  limit,  and  prohibit  work  in  tenement-houses. 
The  cigar-making  industry  has  already  been  brought 

138 


SWEATSHOPS. 


139 


under  control,  and  the  condition  of  cigar-makers  greatly 
improved;  the  tailoring  industry,  however,  by  which 
tens  of  thousands  of  tenement-house  dwellers  make 
their  living,  is  as  yet  not  effectually  controlled. 

The  following  sections  of  the  New  York  Labor  Law 
relating  to  sweat-shops  are  interesting  as  covering  all 
points : 

"Manufacturing,  altering,  repairing,  or  finishing  articles  in 
tenements. — No  room  or  apartment  in  any  tenement  or  dwelling- 
house,  or  in  a  building  situated  in  the  rear  of  any  tenement  or 
dwelling-house,  shall  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing, 
altering,  repairing,  or  finishing  therein,  any  coats,  vests,  knee- 
pants,  trousers,  overalls,  cloaks,  hats,  caps,  suspenders,  jerseys, 
blouses,  dresses,  waists,  waist-bands,  underwear,  neckwear,  furs, 
fur  trimmings,  fur  garments,  skirts,  shirts,  purses,  feathers,  arti- 
ficial flowers,  cigarettes,  cigars,  or- umbrellas,  unless  a  license  is 
secured  therefor  as  provided  in  this  article.  But  nothing  herein 
contained  shall  apply  to  collars,  cuffs,  shirts  or  shirt-waists  made 
of  cotton  or  linen  fabrics  that  are  subjected  to  the  laundrying 
process  before  being  offered  for  sale.  If  the  factory  inspector  ascer- 
tain that  such  room,  apartment,  or  building  is  in  a  clean  and 
proper  sanitary  condition,  and  that  the  articles  specified  in  this 
section  may  be  manufactured  therein  under  clean  and  healthful 
conditions,  he  shall  grant  a  license  permitting  the  use  of  such  room, 
apartment,  or  building,  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing,  altering, 
repairing,  or  finishing  such  articles.  Each  license  shall  state  the 
maximum  number  of  persons  who  may  be  employed  in  the  room 
or  rooms  to  which  such  license  relates.  The  number  of  persons  to 
be  so  employed  shall  be  determined  by  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of 
air-space  contained  in  each  room  or  apartment  mentioned  in  such 
license,  allowing  not  less  than  250  cubic  feet  for  each  person  em- 
ployed between  the  hours  of  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  6  o'clock 
in  the  evening;  and,  unless  by  a  special  written  permit  of  the  fac- 
tory inspector,  not  less  than  400  cubic  feet  for  each  person  em- 
ployed therein  between  the  hours  of  G  o'clock  in  the  evening  and 
6  o'clock  in  the  morning,  but  no  such  permit  shall  be  issued  unless 
such  room  or  apartment  is  lighted  by  electricity  or  other  suitable 


140 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


light,  at  all  times  during  such  hours,  Avhile  such  persons  are  em- 
ployed therein.  If  the  factory  inspector  finds  that  infectious  or 
contagious  diseases  exist  in  a  workshop,  room,  or  apartment  of  a 
tenement  or  dwelling-house  or  of  a  building  in  the  rear  thereof, 
in  which  any  of  the  articles  specified  in  Sec.  100  of  this  chapter, 
are  being  manufactured,  altered,  repaired,  or  finished,  or  that 
articles  manufactured  or  in  process  of  manufacture  therein  are 
infected,  or  that  goods  used  therein  are  unfit  for  use,  he  shall 
report  to  the  local  board  of  health,  and  such  board  shall  issue  such 
order  as  the  public  health  may  require.  Such  board  may  condemn 
and  destroy  all  such  infected  articles  or  articles  manufactured  or 
in  the  process  of  manufacture  under  unclean  or  unhealthful  con- 
ditions." 


CHAPTEK  VI. 


WORKSHOPS  AND  FACTORIES. 

The  term  factory  "  is  used  to  designate  a  place 
where  work  is  done  by  one  or  more  persons  by  means  of 
mechanical  power,  whereas  a  workshop  "  is  a  place 
where  work  is  done  by  one  or  more  persons  with- 
out mechanical  power;  thus,  a  tailor-shop  with  ma- 
chines run  by  hand  or  foot  is  a  workshop,  but  if  these 
machines  are  run  by  steam,  then  it  is  a  factory.  This 
is  the  logical  differentiation  and  definition  of  the  terms, 
although  the  Xew  York  Labor  Law  says:  The  term 
^  factory  '  shall  be  construed  to  include  also  any  mill, 
workshop,  or  other  manufacturing  or  business  establish- 
ments where  one  or  more  persons  are  employed  at 
labor." 

A  great  part  of  the  workingman's  life  is  spent  in  the 
workshop  or  factory,  and  the  sanitary  condition  of 
these  is  of  the  very  greatest  importance,  as  it  has  a  de- 
cided influence  upon  the  health  and  longevity  of  the 
laborer.  The  pursuit  of  some  special  trade  may  be 
fraught  with  various  dangers  to  the  health  and  life  of 
the  worker;  add  to  these  dangers  a  workroom  which  is 
unsanitary,  ill  ventilated,  not  properly  lighted,  badly 
plumbed,  and  overcrowded,  and  the  dangers  are  in- 
creased a  hundredfold. 

141 


142 


HANDBOOK  OK  SANITATIOK. 


To  remedy  the  evils  of  nnsaiiitaiy  workshops  and 
factories,  most  of  the  States  have  passed  laws  to  im- 
prove the  condition  of  the  workingman  and  the  places 
in  which  he  w^orks.  These  laws  are  called  factory 
or  "  labor  laws,  and  their  administration  is  entrusted 
to  a  specially  created  Factory,  or  Labor  Department. 

The  f ollow^ing  is  an  extract  from  the  provisions  of  the 
New  York  Labor  Law  of  1897 : 

"  1)  Eight  hours  shall  constitute  a  day's  work  for  all  classes  of 
employees  in  this  State  except  those  engaged  in  farm  and  domestic 
service.  The  wages  to  be  paid  for  a  legal  day's  work  upon  all 
public  work  shall  not  be  less  than  the  prevailing  rate  for  a  day's 
work  in  the  same  trade  or  occupation  in  the  locality  where  such 
work  is  being  done. 

"  2)  Ten  consecutive  hours'  of  labor,  including  one-half  hour 
for  meals,  shall  constitute  a  day's  work  in  the  operation  of  all 
street  surface  and  elevated  railroads  in  cities  of  more  than  100,000 
inhabitants. 

"3)  Ten  hours,  exclusive  of  the  necessary  time  for  meals,  shall 
constitute  a  legal  day's  work  in  the  making  of  bricks  in  brick- 
yards. 

"4)  Every  person  employing  females  in  a  factory  shall  provide 
and  maintain  suitable  seats  for  the  use  of  such  female  employees. 

"5)  Scaffolding,  hoists,  and  staging,  etc.,  to  be  constructed, 
placed,  and  operated,  as  to  give  proper  protection  to  the  life  and 
limb  of  a  person  employed.  All  swinging  and  stationary  scaffold- 
ing shall  be  so  constructed  as  to  bear  4  times  the  maximum  weight 
required  to  be  dependent  therefrom  or  placed  thereon,  when  in 
use;  and  not  more  than  4  men  shall  be  allowed  on  any  swinging 
scaffold  at  one  time. 

"  6)  Protection  of  persons  employed  in  buildings  in  cities. 

"7)  A  child  under  the  age  of  14  years  shall  not  be  employed  in 
any  factory  in  the  State.  A  child  between  the  ages  of  14  and  16 
years  shall  not  be  employed  without,  a  certificate  from  the  Health 
Department. 

"  8)  No  minor  under  tlie  age  of  18  years,  and  no  female  shall  be 
employed  at  labor  in  any  f-vctoiy  before  0  a.  m.  or  after  9  p.  M.,  or 


WORKSHOPS  AND  FACTOIUES. 


143 


for  more  than  10  hour*  in  any  one  day  or  00  hours  in  one  week, 
except  to  make  a  shorter  work-day  on  the  hist  day  of  the  week. 

**9)  Elevators  and  hoisting  shafts  to  be  enclosed  and  properly 
cared  for  and  guarded. 

"  10)  Hand-rails  to  be  provided  on  all  stairways.  The  steps  of 
stairs  to  be  provided  witli  securely-fastened  rubber.  Stairs  to  be 
screened  at  sides  and  bottom.  Doors  to  open  outwardly  and  not 
to  be  locked,  fastened,  or  bolted  during  AA  ork. 

"11)  Wherever  machinery  is  used,  belt-shifters  or  other  contri- 
vances to  be  provided  for  throwing  belts  on  and  off  pulleys.  All 
vats,  pans,  saw^s,  etc.,  to  be  properly  guarded.  Exhaust-fans  to 
be  provided  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  dust  from  emery- 
wheels,  grindstones,  and  other  machinery  creating  dust. 

"12)  Fire-escapes  to  be  provided  in  all  factories. 

"  13)  Walls  and  ceilings  of  workrooms  to  be  cleaned,  white- 
washed, or  painted. 

"  14)  Size  of  rooms. — Xo  more  employees  shall  be  required  or 
permitted  to  Avork  in  a  room  in  a  factory  between  the  hours  of  6 
o'clock  in  the  morning  and  6  o'clock  in*  the  evening  than  Vvill  allow 
to  each  of  such  employees  not  less  than  250  cubic  feet  of  air- 
space; and,  unless  by  a  written  permit  of  the  factory  inspector, 
not  less  than  400  cubic  feet  for  each  employee,  so  employed  between 
the  hours  of  G  o'clock  in  the  evening  and  6  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
provided  such  room  is  lighted  by  electricity  at  all  times  during 
such  hours,  while  persons  are  employed  therein. 

"  15)  Ventilation. — The  owner,  agent,  or  lessee  of  a  factory  shall 
provide,  in  each  workroom  thereof,  proper  and  sufficient  means  of 
ventilation;  in  case  of  failure  the  factory  inspector  shall  order  such 
ventilation  to  be  provided. 

"  16)  Wash-room  and  water-closets. — Every  factory  shall  con- 
tain a  suitable,  convenient,  and  separate  water-closet  or  water- 
closets  for  each  sex,  which  shall  be  properly  screened,  ventilated, 
and  kept  clean  and  free  from  all  obscene  writing  or  marking;  and 
also  a  suitable  and  convenient  wash-room.  The  water-closets  used 
by  women  shall  have  separate  approaches.  When  women  or  girls 
are  employed,  a  dressing-room  shall  be  provided  for  them,  when 
required  by  the  factory  inspector." 

It  will  tints  be  seen  by  a  careful  perusal  of  the  above 
so-called  "labor  laws  "  that  the  workingman  has  been 


144 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


the  object  of  favored  legislation.  AVliat  is  wanted  from 
now  on  is  not  more  laws,  hut  flic  strict  literal  interpre- 
tation and  rigid  af plication  of  all  existing  laws.  Then 
and  then  only  will  the  condition  of  the  poor  nnfortn- 
nates  who  are  compelled  to  work  amid  most  unsanitary 
environments  he  improved. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


MEECANTILE  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

By  "  mercantile  establishments "  is  meant  places 
where  goods  are  sold  or  held  for  sale,  such  as  stores, 
sale  shops,  department  stores,  etc.  These  places  were, 
as  a  rule,  not  included  in  the  factory  acts,  and  as  the 
employees  in  them  are  mostly  women  and  children, 
great  need  was  felt  for  regulating  the  hours  of  labor 
and  putting  these  establishments  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

The  mercantile  law  in  Xew  York  State,  known  as 
Chapter  418  of  the  Laws  of  1897,  is  a  decided  forward 
step  in  this  direction. 

The  following  are  the  essential  sections  of  this  law : 

"  1)  Sixty  hours  is  the  maximum  of  time  in  one  week  that  a 
woman  under  21  and  male  children  under  16  shall  be  made  to  work. 

"2)  Children  under  12  are  not  to  be  employed.  Children  be- 
tween 12  and  14  years  of  age  can  be  employed  only  during  vaca- 
tion time,  but  must  have  a  certificate  from  the  Health  Department. 
Children  between  14  and  16  can  be  employed  only  after  receiving 
a  certificate  as  to  their  school  attendance,  strength,  etc. 

"3)  Suitable  wash-rooms  and  water-closets  are  to  be  provided. 
The  water-closets  are  to  be  separate  for  males  and  females,  and  are 
to  be  properly  screened  and  ventilated. 

"4)  Lunch-rooms  are  not  to  be  adjacent  to  water-closets. 

"  5)  Seats,  stools,  or  other  suitable  seats  must  be  provided  for  all 
female  employees. 

"  6)  Women  and  children  not  to  work  in  basements  unless  per- 
mitted by  the  Health  Department." 

145 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE  SMOKE  NUISANCE. 

Among  the  many  nuisances  incident  to  city  life  is  tlie 
black  smoke  belched  forth  from  the  chimneys  of  fac- 
tories. The  composition  of  the  smoke  as  it  leaves 
the  chimney  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  fuel 
burned,  as  well  as  on  the  manner  of  combustion  and  the 
care  with  which  it  is  carried  out.  Smoke  consists  of  car- 
bon and  various  gases;  its  density  depends  on  the  num- 
ber of  particles  of  unconsumed  carbon.  When  the  coal 
used  is  entirely  consumed,  no  black  smoke  forms,  but 
if  the  combustion  is  incomplete,  a  large  part  of  the  un- 
consumed fuel  will  go  off  and  be  wasted  in  the  form  of 
smoke,  causing  a  vitiation  of  the  air. 

Anthracite  coal  and  coke  give  no  smoke,  or,  at  least, 
very  little;  but  if  soft  coal,  and  especially  if  shavings, 
sawdust,  etc.,  be  burned,  the  smoke  will  be  abundant 
and  black.  When  furnaces  are  of  sufficient  capacity, 
with  grates  having  a  large  area,  with  the  coal  spread 
continuously  in  a  thin  sheet^  and  with  the  requisite 
amount  of  air  furnished,  the  production  of  smoke 
greatly  diminishes. 

There  are  various  smoke-consuming  and  smoke-pre- 

146 


THE  SMOKE  NUISANCE, 


147 


venting  appliances  employed  with  a  view  to  abating  the 
nuisance. 

The  following  are  the  recommendations  printed  in  a 
circular  of  the  Cincinnati  engineer  in  charge  of  this 
nuisance  (Chapin) : 

"  1)  Have  a  hot  fire.  Give  the  gas  sufficient  space  and  time  to 
burn  before  the  fire  is  below  a  red  heat. 

"  2 )  Fire  in  small  quantities  over  one  part  of  the  grate  at  a  time. 
The  other  parts  must  be  closely  watched  and  promptly  attended  to. 

"3)  Keep  a  clean  fire  all  the  time.  Never  keep  a  set  of  bare 
grate-bars  in  service  that  are  warped  or  burned,  because  the  air- 
spaces become  closed.  Keep  the  side  walls  of  furnaces  in  good  re- 
pair, ash-pit  free  from  ashes,  and  bridge-wall  clean  and  in  repair. 
Do  not  permit  deposits  to  accumulate  back  of  the  bridge-wall. 

"4)  Clean  flues  or  tubes  at  least  once  each  day. 

"  5)^  Do  not  delay  if  draught  is  not  good,  but  attend  to  it  imme- 
diately, as  a  good  draught  is  important  in  attaining  good  combus- 
tion." 


CHAPTER  IX. 


BAKERIES. 

Bakeeies  are  commonly  located  in  cellars,  and  tlieir 
proper  ventilation,  lighting,  and  plumbing  are,  as  a 
rule,  bad  and  defective.  The  small  bakeries  in  the 
tenement-house  districts  are  usually  in  bad  sanitary 
condition,  and  endanger  the  health  of  the  employees, 
who  are  compelled  to  work  in  the  hot,  stifling  at- 
mosphere from  12  to  16  hours  during  the  night;  more- 
over, they  are  a  source  of  danger  in  spreading  infection 
among  consumers  of  the  bakery  products.  Most  cities 
have  some  laws  in  regard  to  bakeries.  In  iS'ew  York 
State,  bakeries  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  Health 
Department  of  the  municipality,  as  well  as  under  that 
of  the  Factory  Inspector  of  the  State. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  'New  York  State 
Labor  Law : 

"Sec.  110.  Hours  of  labor  in  bakeries  and  confectionery  estab- 
lishments.— No  employee  shall  be  required  or  permitted  to  work 
in  a  biscuit,  bread,  or  cake  bakery  or  confectionery  establishment 
more  than  60  hours  in  any  one  week,  or  more  than  10  hours  in 
any  one  day,  unless  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  shorter  work  day 
on  the  last  day  of  the  week ;  nor  more  hours  in  any  one  week  than 
will  make  an  average  of  10  hours  per  day  for  the  number  of  days 
during  such  week  in  which  such  employee  shall  work. 

*'Sec.  111.   Drainage  and  plumbing  of  buildings  and  rooms  oc- 

w 


BAKERIES. 


149 


cupied  by  bakeries.— All  buildings  or  rooms  occupied  as  biscuit, 
bread,  pie,  or  cake  bakeries,  shall  be  drained  and  plumbed  in  a 
manner  conducive  to  the  proper  and  healthful  sanitary  condition 
thereof,  and  shall  be  constructed  with  air-shafts,  windows,  or  ven- 
tilating-pipes,  sufficient  to  insure  ventilation.  The  factory  in- 
spector may  direct  the  proper  drainage,  plumbing,  and  ventilation 
of  such  rooms  or  buildings.  JS^o  cellar  or  basement,  not  now  used 
for  a  bakery  shall  hereafter  be  so  occupied  or  used,  unless  the  pro- 
prietor shall  comply  with  the  sanitary  provisions  of  this  article. 

"Sec.  112.  Requirements  as  to  rooms,  furniture,  utensils,  and 
manufactured  products. — Every  room  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
flour  or  meal  food-products  shall  be  at  least  8  feet  in  height  and 
shall  have,  if  deemed  necessary  by  the  factory  inspector,  an  im- 
permeable floor  constructed  of  cement,  or  of  tiles  laid  in  cement, 
or  an  additional  flooring  of  wood  properly  saturated  with  linseed 
oil.  The  side  walls  of  such  rooms  shall  be  plastered  or  wainscoted. 
The  factory  inspector  may  require  the  side  walls  and  ceiling  to  be 
whitewashed,  at  least  once  in  three  months.  He  may  also  require 
the  woodwork  of  such  walls  to  be  painted.  Tl  ,  furniture  and 
utensils  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  readily  cleansed  and  not 
prevent  the  proper  cleaning  of  any  part  of  the  room.  The  man- 
ufactured flour  or  meal  food-products  shall  be  kept  in  dry  and  airy 
rooms  so  arranged  that  the  floors,  shelves,  and  all  other  facilities 
for  storing  the  same  can  be  properly  cleaned.  No  domestic  ani- 
mals, 'except  cats,  shall  be  allowed  to  remain  in  a  room  used 
as  a  biscuit,  bread,  pie,  or  cake  bakery  or  any  room  in  such  bakery 
where  flour  or  meal-products  are  stored. 

"Sec.  113.  Wash-room  and  closets;  sleeping  places. — Every 
such  bakery  shall  be  provided  with  a  proper  wash-room  and  water- 
closet  or  water-closets  apart  from  the  bake-room,  or  rooms  where 
the  manufacture  of  such  food-product  is  conducted,  and  no  water- 
closet,  earth-closet,  privy,  or  ash-pit  shall  be  within  or  connected 
directly  with  the  bake-room  of  any  bakery,  hotel,  or  public  res- 
taurant. No  person  shall  sleep  in  a  room  occupied  as  a  bake- 
room." 

The  following  rules  are  from  the  Pennsylvania  law 
(Chapin) : 

"  1 )  All  bakeries  shall  be  plumbed  and  drained  in  a  satisfactory 
manner  as  approved  by  the  law;  and  should  also  be  ventilated  \)J 
jineans  of  air-shafts,  windows,  or  veutilating-pipes, 


150 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION, 


"2)  They  must  have  an  impervious  floor,  constructed  of  cement 
or  of  tiles  laid  in  cement,  or  of  wood  of  which  all  the  crevices  shall 
be  filled  in  with  putty,  and  the  whole  surface  treated  with  oil  var- 
nish. The  inside  walls  and  ceilings  shall  be  plastered,  and  either 
be  painted  with  oil  paint,  three  coats,  or  be  lime-washed,  or  the 
side  walls  plastered  and  wainscoted  to  the  height  of  6  feet  from 
the  floor,  and  painted  or  oiled;  when  painted,  paint  shall  be  re- 
newed at  least  once  every  5  years,  and  shall  be  washed  with  hot 
water  and  soap  at  least  once  in  every  3  months;  when  lime- 
washed,  the  lime-washing  shall  be  renewed  at  least  once  in  every 
3  months.   No  domestic  or  pet  animal  shall  be  allowed  in  the  room. 

"  3)  The  manufactured  products  shall  be  kept  in  perfectly  dry 
and  airy  rooms. 

"  4)  Every  such  bakery  shall  be  provided  with  a  proper  wash- 
room and  water-closets,  apart  from  the  bake-room,  and  no  water- 
closet,  earth-closet,  privy,  or  ash-pit  shall  be  within  or  communi- 
cate directly  with  the  bake-room. 

"  5)  Every  sleeping-room  for  persons  employed  in  every  bakery 
shall  be  kept  separate  from  the  room  where  flour  or  meal-products 
are  manufactured  or  stored,  and  shall  be  provided  with  one  or  more 
external  glazed  windows,  each  of  which  shall  be  at  least  9  super- 
ficial feet  in  area,  of  which  4J  feet  shall  be  made  to  open  for  venti- 
lation." 


CHAPTER  X. 


STABLES. 

In  most  cities  some  regulations  are  in  force  limiting 
the  location  of  stables.  Thus,  in  Boston  stables  are  pro- 
hibited within  200  feet  from  churches.  In  Chicago,  in 
order  to  build  a  stable,  it  is  necessary  to  get  the  per- 
mission of  the  owners  of  the  houses  within  600  feet 
from  the  proposed  stable;  in  ^Tew  York  no  stable  can  be 
kept  on  the  same  lot  with  a  tenement-house,  and  all 
stables  previously  built  on  such  lots  are  being  ordered 
out. 

Horses  need  from  10,000  to  20,000  cubic  feet  of  air 
in  an  hour;  but  as  the  air  of  stables  can  be  changed 
frequently,  it  has  been  estimated  that  the  minimum 
air-space  should  be  1200  cubic  feet.  Each  horse  should 
have  120  square  feet  floor-space,  the  stalls  should  be 
0  feet  wide  and  9  feet  long,  and  the  stable  should  be 
ventilated  by  w^indows  of  proper  dimensions  in  opposite 
walls,  and,  if  possible,  by  a  louvered  open  ridge  between 
roof  and  walls. 

The  floors  of  stables  should  be  of  some  impervious  ma- 
terial, like  cement,  bricks,  etc.,  and  the  woodwork  in 
stalls  should  be  tight,  well  laid,  and  frequently  taken  up 
and  cleaned. 

The  draining  of  stables  is  done  by  longitudinal  open 

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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


drains,  the  so-called  valley  drains/'  wliicli  should  be 
covered  and  connected  with  the  sewer  by  a  properly 
trapped,  extra  heavy  iron  drain. 

The  manure  is  kept  loose  and  removed  every  day  in 
proper  manure-carts,  or  is  pressed  into  barrels  or  bales 
and  removed  once  or  oftener  a  week. 

The  removal  of  manure  is  in  some  cities  regulated  as 
to  the  time;  thus,  in  Jersey  City  the  removal  can  be 
done  only  between  6  p.  m.  and  7  a.  m.  ;  in  Boston  manure 
can  be  removed  only  after  12  at  night  during  the  sum- 
mer. The  stable  should  be  kept  clean  and  frequently 
disinfected. 

We  quote  the  following  from  the  Sanitary  Code  of 
^^ew  York: 

"  See.  120.  That  every  owner,  lessee,  tenant,  and  occupant  of 
any  stall,  stable,  or  apartment  in  the  built-up  portions  of  the  City 
of  New  York,  in  \Yhich  any  horse,  cattle,  or  other  animal  shall  be 
kept,  or  of  any  place  in  which  manure,  stable  refuse,  or  any  liquid 
discharge  of  such  animals  shall  collect  or  accumulate,  shall  cause 
such  manure,  stable  refuse,  or  liquid  to  be  promptly  and  properly 
removed  therefrom,  and  shall  at  all  times  keep  or  cause  to  be  kept 
such  stalls,  stables,  or  apartments,  and  the  drains,  yards,  and  appur- 
tenances thereof,  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition,  so  that  no  offen- 
sive odors  shall  be  allowed  to  escape  tlierefrom.  It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  every  such  owner,  lessee,  tenant  or  occupant,  to  cause  all 
manure  and  stable  refuse  to  be  removed  daily  from  such  stable  or 
stable  premises,  unless  the  same  are  pressed  in  bales,  barrels,  or 
boxes,  as  hereinafter  provided.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  to  remove 
manure  and  stable  refuse  in  carts  or  wagons,  or  to  cart  the  same 
w^ithin  the  city  limits  without  a  permit  from  the  Board  of  Health, 
and  such  carts  and  wagons  shall  be  of  a  construction  approved  by 
said  Board,  and  every  such  cart  or  wagon  must  have  a  permit 
from  the  Board  in  writing,  and  be  used  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  such  permit  and  not  otherwise.  ^^lanure-carts  and  wagons 
shall  be  loaded  within  the  stable  premises  and  not  upon  the  streets 
or  sidewalk,  and  sliall  bo  removed  from  such  premises  in  a  manner 


STABLES. 


153 


not  in  any  way  offensive  or  to  cause  any  nuisance.  All  manure 
and  stable  refuse  when  transported  through  the  streets  must  be  so 
covered  and  secured  that  no  part  of  the  same  will  fall  upon  the 
street,  and  so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  offensive  odors,  and  the 
same  shall  not  be  unloaded  or  deposited  within  the  city  limits,  ex- 
cept upon  the  conditions  of  a  permit  in  writing  from  the  Board  of 
Health,  and  at  such  docks  and  places  as  shall  be  approved  by  the 
Board,  and  to  which  a  permit  in  writing  for  such  use  shall  have 
previously  been  granted  by  said  Board.  Xo  manure  or  stable  refuse 
shall  be  allowed  to  be  thrown  upon  or  fall  and  remain  upon  any 
street  or  sidewalk,  or  upon  any  ground  near  any  stable,  and  no 
manure  and  stable  refuse  shall  be  allowed  to  remain  for  more  than 
24  hours  in  any  place  within  any  stable,  unless  it  is  pressed  in 
bales,  barrels,  or  boxes.  Xo  manure-vault  or  receptacle  shall  be 
built  or  used  on  any  premises  within  the  built-up  portions  of  the 
city,  nor  in  any  other  part  of  the  city,  except  pursuant  to  the 
terms  of  a  permit  granted  therefor  by  the  Board  of  Health. 

"  Every  owner,  lessee,  tenant,  or  occupant  of  any  stall,  stable,  or 
apartment,  in  the  built-up  portions  of  the  City  of  Xew  York,  in 
which  any  horse,  cattle,  or  other  animals  >  shall  be  kept,  and  from 
which  the  manure  and  stable  refuse  is  not  removed  daily  as  here- 
inbefore provided,  shall  cause  the  same  to  be  pressed  in  bales,  bar- 
rels, or  boxes,  at  least  once  in  each  day,  and  so  pressed  as  to  re- 
duce the  same  to  not  more  than  one-third  of  the  original  bulk. 
Manure  and  stable  refuse  pressed  in  bales,  barrels,  or  boxes,  shall 
be  removed  to  such  docks  or  places  as  shall  be  approved  by  the 
Board  of  Health,  and  to  which  a  permit  in  writing  for  such  use 
shall  have  previously  been  granted  by  said  Board,  and  such  bales, 
barrels,  and  boxes  shall  not  be  opened  until  delivered  at  such  docks 
or  places." 


CHAPTEK  XI. 


SLAUGHTER-HOUSES. 

Slaughter-houses  in  cities  are  apt  to  become  a  se- 
rious nuisance;  they  are,  as  a  rule,  kept  under  strict 
supervision  by  sanitary  authorities,  and  their  location  is 
limited  to  certain  districts,  a  careful  watch  being  kept 
over  them  to  prevent  unsanitary  conditions. 

Slaughter-houses  must  be  well  lighted,  properly  ven- 
tilated, drained,  plumbed,  and  cared  for. 

Following  are  abstracts  from  the  X.  Y.  San.  Code: 

1)  That  the  keeping  and  slaughtering  of  all  cattle,  and  the 
preparation  and  keeping  of  all  meat  and  fish,  birds,  and  fowl,  shall 
be  in  that  manner  which  is,  or  is  generally  reputed  or  known  to 
be,  best  adapted  to  secure  and  continue  their  safety  and  whole- 
someness  as  food. 

"2)  Certain  streets  and  areas  defined  where  slaughtering  can 
be  done  with  permits  from  the  Department. 

"3)  The  slaughter-houses,  yards,  and  appurtenances,  to  be  thor- 
oughly cleansed  and  purified,  and  all  oflal,  blood,  fat,  garbage, 
refuse,  and  unwholesome  or  offensive  matter,  to  be  therefrom  re- 
moved, at  least  once  in  every  24  hours  after  the  use  thereof  for 
slaughtering  purposes;  and  all  woodwork,  save  floors  or  counters, 
shall  be  thoroughly  painted  or  whitewashed. 

"  4)  That  no  building  occupied  wholly  or  partly  as  a  slaughter- 
house shall,  without  special  permit,  be  occupied  for  a  dwelling  or 
lodging-place. 

"5)  That  every  such  building  should  be  at  all  times  kept  ade- 
quately ventilated;  that  no  blood  shall  be  kept  therein  over  night; 

154 


SLA  UOHTER-HO  VSES. 


155 


that  adequate  underground  connection  shall  be  made  from  every 
such  building  with  a  public  sewer;  and  the  yard  shall  be  cemented 
and  paved  so  as  not  to  absorb  blood,  and  so  as  to  carry  all  liquids 
into  sewers,"    Sec.  81-85. 


TYPICAL  SLAUGHTER  HOUSE. 


FERTILIZER 

AND 

■III 

1  CATTLE 

I  PENS 

3 

FAT 

RENDERING 

Fm.  29. 

(From  the  New  York  Health  Department  Report,  1896.) 


CHAPTER  XII. 
OFFENSIVE  TRADES. 


There  is  a  large  mimber  of  trades  and  manufactures 
that  are  for  one  reason  or  another  offensive,  as  they 
produce  effects  injurious  to  health  and  dangerous  to  life, 
and  thus  constitute  a  public  nuisance. 

The  following  classification  of  offensive  trades  and 
processes  is  taken  from  Dr.  Tracy's  encyclopedic  arti- 
cle on  Public  Nuisances  in  Buck's  "  Hygiene  and  Pub- 
lic Health": 

1)  Offensive  trades. 

2)  Offensive  processes. 

3)  Other  nuisances. 

Under  each  heading  are  classified  the  nuisances  accord- 
ing to  their  predominant  offensive  characteristics,  i.e., 
the  chief  quality  on  account  of  which  they  are  looked 
upon  as  nuisances. 

Offensive  Trades. — Those  businesses  in  which  the 
substances  dealt  with  are  offensive,  or  may  become  so 
as  a  result  of  mechanical  manipulation. 

Smell. — a)  Keeping  of  living  animals:  horses,  cat- 
tle, pigs,  poultry,  etc.  h)  Killing  of  animals:  cattle, 
sheep,  pigs,  etc.    c)  Storage  or  handling  of  animal  mat- 

156 


OFFENSIVE  TRADES. 


157 


ter:  manure,  offal,  bones,  liides,  hoofs,  horns,  fish,  oils, 
eggs,  cheese,  etc.  d)  Storage  or  handling  of  vegetable 
matter:  fruits,  vegetables,  essential  oils,  etc.  e)  Stor- 
age or  handling  of  mineral  matter :  oils.  /)  Storage  or 
handling  of  mixed  matter:  rags,  kitchen  refuse. 

Dust. — Sand  -  blast,  carpet  -  cleaning,  hair  -  picking, 
street-sweeping. 

I^ToisE. — Street-vending,  junk-dealing,  etc. 

Offensive  Processes. — Those  businesses  in  which  the 
substances  dealt  with  are  offensive  as  a  result  of  chem- 
ical manipulation. 

Smell. — a)  Manufacture  of  animal  substances :  fat- 
rendering,  lard-refining,  spap-making,  glycerine-refining, 
gut-cleaning,  bone-boiling,  pork-packing,  tanning,  glue- 
making,  shell-burning,  h)  Vegetable  substances:  brew- 
ing, gas-making,  distilling,  sugar-refining,  vinegar-,  var- 
nish-making,  c)  Mixed:  cooking. 

Fumes. — Manufacture  of  chemicals,  glass-works,  pot- 
teries, bleaching-works,  brick-making,  smelting,  refin- 
ing, assaying,  etc. 

Dust. — Plaster-burning,  lime-burning,  coffee-washing. 

Other  Nuisances. — Smoke. — Box-factories,  planing- 
mills,  foundries,  forges,  potteries,  dye-houses,  etc. 

^sToiSE. — Railroads,  factories,  boiler-works,  etc. 

Most  of  the  enumerated  works  and  trades  are  offen- 
sive for  the  causes  indicated,  and  are  injurious  to  the 
health  of  those  who  work  at  those  trades  and  also  to 
others  outside  of  the  industry.  The  modes  of  prevent- 
ing the  deleterious  effects  of  these  industries  upon  the 
health  of  those  employed  in  them,  and  also  of  prevent- 
ing them  from  becoming  public  nuisances,  cannot  be 
gone  into  here. 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 


FOOD. 

The  supply  of  food  for  the  needs  of  man  is  not  only 
an  economic  question,  but  it  is  also  a  sanitary  problem, 
when  the  food  for  any  reason  becomes  imfit  for  use  and 
injurious  to  health. 

The  causes  of  food  being  unfit  for  use  are  several,  and 
may  be  enumerated  thus : 

1)  An  unhealthy  or  diseased  source. 

2)  An  unwholesome  or  diseased  condition. 

3)  Adulteration  of  the  food. 

An  unwholesome  source  and  condition:  meat  from 
diseased  cattle;  milk  from  sick  cows;  food  decayed  and 
unfit  by  reason  of  putrefaction,  or  by  reason  of  being 
put  up  in  certain  containers,  such  as  tin  cans,  boxes,  etc. 

Adulteration  of  foods :  adulterations  may  be  divided 
into  those  injurious  to  health  and  those  not  so.  The 
prevalent  processes  of  adulteration  are  the  following: 

1)  By  eliminating  some  important  ingredient,  such 
as  removing  the  cream  from  milk,  i.e.,  skimming. 

2)  By  substituting  some  cheaper  material  for  the  one 
more  expensive,  such  as  oleomargarine  for  butter,  etc. 

3)  By  the  addition  of  some  seemingly  harmless  sub- 
stance, such  as  water  to  milk. 

158 


FOOD. 


159 


4)  By  the  addition  of  some  preservative,  such  as 
borax,  salicylic  acid,  formaldehyde,  etc. 

6)  By  coloring  an  inferior  grade  to  make  it  appear  as 
a  superior  one. 

6)  By  the  addition  of  spices  or  other  ingredients  to 
improve  the  taste,  etc. 

All  adulteration  of  food  is  prohibited  or  regulated, 
and  the  sale  of  decayed,  unwholesome,  and  unfit  foods 
is  prohibited.  The  laws  about  food  are  not  only  Mu- 
nicipal and  State,  but  also  Federal;  thus,  the  meat  in- 
dustry is  partly  under  the  supervision  of  the  Federal 
Government. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


MEAT. 

Meat  is  a  staple  and  a  most  important  article  of 
food;  it  is  under  complete  sanitary  supervision  from  the 
time  the  cattle  are  raised  and  brought  to  the  markets, 
to  the  time  it  is  exposed  for  sale  in  the  retail  shops. 

The  supervision  of  the  cattle-raising  trade,  and  the 
slaughtering  in  the  abattoirs  is  under  the  Federal  as 
well  as  State  control.  There  are  laws  regulating  the 
sale  of  cattle,  their  keeping,  transportation,  the  meth- 
ods of  killing,  the  places  of  killing,  etc. 

The  characteristics  of  good  meat  are,  according  to 
H.  Sydney  Marsden,  F.E.S.  (San.  Record,  July),  the 
following: 

"  Mutton  and  beef,  when  of  good  quality,  possess  a  rich,  bright, 
uniform  color,  neither  too  pink  nor  of  a  too  deep  purple  tint;  and 
a  firm  texture,  free  from  flabbiness,  though  moderately  soft  and 
elastic.  It  has  a  marble  appearance,  due  to  the  deposits  of  fat 
among  the  connective  tissue  between.the  muscles.  It  should  not  be 
wet  or  clammy,  nor  should  the  fat  look  like  jelly  or  parchment, 
as  these  are  signs  that  the  meat  is  unwholesome  and  unfit  for  use. 
It  should  scarcely  moisten  the  fingers,  and  the  juice  should  be  dis- 
tinctly acid.  It  should  have  little  or  no  odor. 

"The  characteristics  of  fresh  fish  are  the  following:  The  skin 
should  be  bright  and  clean  and  retaining  its  scales,  the  flesh  firm 

160 


MEAT. 


161 


and  not  flaccid,  soft,  or  broken  down,  and  the  gills  should  be  piiiJ<, 
bright,  and  clean-looking,  and  not  of  a  dirty  brown  color;  the 
condition  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  body  cavity  should  be 
carefully  examined  and  be  in  a  healthy,  sound  condition,  and  the 
smell  not  disagreeable.'' 

The  following  sections  of  the  IN^ew  York  Sanitary 
Code  in  relation  to  foods,  meats,  etc.,  cover  most  points 
in  the  sanitary  supervision  of  foods. 

"  See.  44.  That  no  meat,  fish,  birds,  or  fowl,  fruit  or  vegetables, 
nor  any  milk,  not  being  then  healthy,  fresh,  sound,  wholesome,  and 
safe  for  human  food,  nor  any  meat  or  fish  that  died  by  disease  or 
accident,  shall  be  brought  within  said  city,  or  offered  or  held  for 
sale  in  any  public  or  private  market,  as  such  food,  anywhere  in 
said  city. 

"  Sec.  45.  That  no  calf,  pig,  or  lamb,  or  the  meat  thereof,  shall 
be  brought,  held,  or  offered  for  sale,  as  such  food,  in  said  city, 
which  (being  a  calf),  when  killed  and  dressed,  weighs  less  than 
forty-five  (45)  pounds;  or  (being  a  pig)  was,  when  killed,  not 
more  than  five  weeks  old;  or  (being  a  lamb)  was,  when  killed,  not 
more  than  eight  weeks  old.  Nor  shall  any  meagre,  sickly,  or  un- 
wholesome fish,  birds,  or  fowl,  be  brought,  held,  sold,  or  offered 
for  sale,  as  such  food,  in  said  city. 

"  Sec.  46.  Tbat  no  cattle  shall  be  killed  for  human  food  while 
in  an  overheated,  feverish,  or  diseased  condition;  and  all  such 
diseased  cattle,  in  the  City  of  New  York,  and  the  place  where 
r<  und,  and  their  disease,  shall  be  at  once  reported  to  this  Depart- 
:.-Gnt  by  the  owner  or  custodian  thereof,  that  the  proper  order  may 
le  made  relative  thereto,  or  for  the  removal  thereof  from  said  city. 

"  Sec.  47.  That  no  meat  or  dead  animal  above  the  size  of  a 
rabbit  shall  be  taken  to  any  public  or  private  market  for  food  until 
the  same  shall  have  fully  cooled  after  killing,  nor  until  the  entrails, 
heads,  and  feet  (except  of  poultry  and  game,  and  except  the  heads 
and  feet  of  swine)  shall  have  been  removed;  nor  shall  the  body  or 
any  part  thereof  of  any  animal  which  is  to  be  used  as  food  be 
carted  or  carried  through  the  streets,  except  it  be  covered  so  as  to 
protect  it  from  dust  and  dirt;  and  no  meat,  poultry,  or  game  shall 
be  hung  or  exposed  for  sale  outside  of  any  shop  or  store  in  this 
city  or  in  the  open  windows  and  doorways  thereof. 


162 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANirAriON. 


"  Sec.  48.  That,  no  decayed  or  unwholesome  fiuit  or  vegetables, 
no  impure  or  unhealthy  or  unwholesome  meat,  fish,  birds,  or  fowl, 
shall  be  brought  into  said  city,  to  be  consumed  or  offered  for  sale 
for  human  food,  nor  shall  any  such  articles  be  kept  or  stored 
therein. 

"  Sec.  50.  That  no  eased,  blown,  plaited,  raised,  stuffed,  putrid, 
impure,  or  unhealthy  or  unwholesome  meat  or  fish,  birds,  or  fowl, 
shall  be  held,  bought  or  sold,  or  offered  for  sale,  for  human  food,  or 
held  or  kept  in  any  market,  public  or  private,  or  any  public  place 
in  said  city. 

"  Sec.  51.  That  no  meat,  fish,  fruit,  vegetables,  or  milk,  or  un- 
wholesome liquid,  shall  knowingly  be  bought,  sold,  held,  offered  for 
sale,  labelled,  or  any  representation  made  in  respect  thereof,  under 
a  false  name  or  quality,  or  as  being  what  the  same  is  not,  as 
respects  wholesomeness,  soundness,  or  safety  for  food  or  drink." 

Horse-meat  is  often  sold  in  large  cities,  and  repre- 
sented by  butchers  as  that  of  cattle.  In  ^^ew  York  City 
the  Board  of  Health  strictly  enforces  Sec.  84  of  the 
Sanitary  Code,  which  reads  as  follows: 

.  .  And  the  slaughtering  of  horses  for  food  is  prohibited,  and 
no  horses  shall  be  slaughtered  in  the  City  of  New  York  without  a 
permit,  in  writing,  from  the  Department  of  Health;  and  no  meat 
of  slaughtered  horses  shall  be  brought  into,  or  held,  kept,  or  of- 
fered for  sale,  at  any  place  in  said  city."" 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  an  article  by  Dr.  M. 
Betz  in  the  Jnly  Piihlic  Health  Record.  It  is  of  interest 
as  to  the  identification  of  horse-meat  : 

"In  bulk,  horse-meat  is  detected  comparatively  A\4thout  diffi- 
culty; the  meat  itself  is  remarkable  on  account  of  a  peculiar  dark 
purple-brown,  with  age,  especially  if  it  is  exposed  to  the  air,  some- 
times even  changing  to  a  black-purple.  The  interstitial  fibres  are 
very  fine,  much  more  elastic  than  in  beef;  a  horse-steak,  therefore, 
seems  quite  soft.  The  muscular  layers  part  easily,  and  the  meat 
on  that  account  seems  softer  notwithstanding  the  coarse  grain. 
The  odor  is  peculiar,  unpleasantly  sweet.  The  taste  of  raw  horse- 
meat  is  so  decidedly  sweet  that  even  an  unsuspecting  person  would 


MEAT.  *  163 

at  once  remark  this  peculiarity.  This  sweetness  is  caused  by  a 
large  percentage  of  a  peculiar  sugar  called  glycogen,  which  is 
present  in  horse-meat  in  very  much  larger  proportion  than  in  the 
meat  of  any  other  animal  used  for  food,  and  it  is  upon  this  sugar 
that  the  chemical  identification  of  horse-meat  depends. 

"  The  fat  of  horses  is  soft  and  oily,  from  a  light  to  a  dark  yellow 
color.  The  poorer  the  horse,  the  more  yellow  the  fat.  This  fat, 
when  a  quarter  of  horse-meat  is  hung  out  in  the  open  air,  on  ac- 
count of  its  soft  character,  will,  by  its  own  specific  gravity,  form 
small  bag-like  forms,  and  thus  gives  a  quarter  of  horse-meat  a 
quite  peculiar  appearance." 


CHAPTER  XV. 


MILK  AND  MILK-INSPECTIOK 

Milk  consists  of  87.17%  water  and  12.83%  solids. 
The  solids  consist  of  3.69%  fats,  4.88%  carbohydrates, 
and  6.71%  salts. 

Milk  should  be  opaque,  of  full,  white  color,  and  with- 
out peculiar  taste  or  smell;  on  boiling  it  should  not 
change  in  appearance.  Its  reaction  is  slightly  acid  or 
neutral.  Specific  gravity,  1.025%  to  1.035%;  cream 
10%  or  more.  The  best  preservative  for  milk  is  boil- 
ing. Various  chemicals  are  sometimes  added  to  pre- 
serve milk,  some  of  which  are  harmless,  others  harmful. 
Among  the  principal  substances  added  to  secure  the 
preservation  of  milk  are  the  f  ollomng :  sodium  carbon- 
ate, borax,  boric  acid,  formaldehyde,  etc. 

Milk  is  adulterated  by  the  subtraction  of  its  cream, 
i.e.,  skimming  ";  by  the  addition  of  water,  and  by  the 
addition  of  preservatives  or  other  foreign  materials, 
such  as  starch,  dextrine,  chalk,  etc. 

The  following  circular  of  the  E'ew  York  Department 
of  Health  gives  a  detailed  and  thorough  description  of 
the  rules  and  regulations  for  the  sale,  care,  and  exam- 
ination of  milk: 

164 


MILK  AND  MILK-INSPECTION. 


165 


RULES  AND  REGULATIONS  OF  THE  HEALTH  DEPART- 
MENT OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK  FOR  THE  SALE 
AND  CARE  OF  MILK.    FEBRUARY,  1896. 

Extract  from  Sanitary  Code  of  Laws  Governing  the  Sale  of  Milk. 

"  Sec.  186.  No  milk  which  has  been  watered,  adulterated,  reduced, 
or  changed  in  any  respect  by  the  addi- 
tion of  water  or  other  substance,  or  by 
the  removal  of  cream,  shall  be  brought 
into,  held,  kept,  or  offered  for  sale,  at 
any  place  in  tlie  City  of  New  York; 
nor  shall  any  one  keep,  have,  or  offer 
for  sale,  in  the  said  city,  any  such  milk. 

"  The  term  *  adulterated '  when  so 
used  in  this  section  means: 

First — Milk  containing  more  than 
88%  of  water  or  fluids. 

"  Second — Milk  containing  less  than 
12%  of  milk  solids. 

"  Third — Milk   containing  less  than 
3%  of  fats. 

"  Fourth — Milk  drawn  from  animals 
within  15  days  before  or  5  days  after 
parturition. 

"  Fifth — Milk  drawn  from  animals 
fed  on  distillery  waste,  or  any  sub- 
stance in  a  state  of  fermentation  or 
putrefaction,  or  on  any  unhealthy  food. 

"  Sixth — Milk  drawn  from  cows  kept 
in  a  crowded  or  unhealthy  condition. 

"  Seventh — Milk  from  which  any  part 
of  the  cream  has  been  removed. 

"  Eighth — Milk  which  has  beeu 
adulterated  with  water  or  any  other 
fluid,  or  to  which  has  been  added,  or 
into  which  has  been  introduced  any 
foreign  substance  whatever. 

"Sec.  207.  Any  milk  found  to  be 
adulterated,  either  by  the  addition  of 

water  or  other  substance,  or  by  the  removal  of  cream,  or  which 
has  been  brought  into,  or  is  held,  or  ofl'ered  for  sale,  in  the  City 


Fig.  30. — Lactometer. 


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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


of  Xew  York,  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  Sec.  18G  of  the  Sanitary 
Code,  may  be  seized  and  destroyed  by  any  inspector  or  other  ofFieer 
of  this  Department  authorized  to  inspect  milk. 

"  Sec.  221.  No  milk  shall  be  received,  held,  kept,  offered  for  sale, 
or  delivered  in  the  City  of  New  York,  without  a  permit,  in  writing, 
from  the  Board  of  Health,  and  subject  to  the  conditions  thereof. 

REGULATIONS. 

"  1.  Milk  shall  not  be  kept  for  sale  or  stored  in  any  room  used 
for  sleeping  or  domestic  purposes  opening  into  the  same. 

"  2.  Milk  must  not  be  transferred  from  cans  to  bottles  or  other 
vessels  on  streets  or  on  ferries  or  at  depots,  except  when  trans- 
ferred to  vessel  of  purchaser  at  time  of  delivery. 

"  3.  Milk  shall  not  be  sold  in  bottles  except  under  the  following 
rules : 

"  Bottles  must  be  washed  clean  with  hot  water  solution  of  soap, 
or  soda,  or  some  other  alkali,  and  then  with  hot  water  before  filling 
with  milk. 

"  Bottles  must  not  be  filled  except  at  the  dairy  or  creamery,  and 
in  the  city  only  in  rooms  so  situated  as  to  prevent  the  contamina- 
tion of  the  milk  by  dust  from  the  streets,  or  other  impurities. 

"  Bottles  must  not  be  washed  or  filled  with  milk  in  any  room 
used  for  sleeping  or  domestic  purposes,  or  opening  into  the  same. 

'*  4.  The  vessel  in  which  milk  is  kept  for  sale  must  be  so  pro- 
tected by  means  of  a  suitable  cover  or  covered  receptacle,  and  so 
placed  in  the  store  as  to  prevent  dust  from  the  street  or  other  im- 
purities falling  into  it. 

5.  Store  permits  must  be  posted  in  stores  so  that  they  can  be 
easily  seen  at  all  times. 

"  6.  Wagon  permits  to  be  carried  on  the  wagons  at  all  times 
when  engaged  in  the  sale,  transportation,  or  delivery  of  milk. 

"  7.  The  number  of  wagon  and  the  number  of  permit,  the  latter 
to  be  preceded  by  the  words  *  Health  Department  Permit,'  must  be 
painted  on  both  sides  of  the  wagon  in  letters  two  (2)  inches  in 
length  and  one-half  (A)  inch  in  width,  and  in  some  contrasting 
color  to  that  of  wagon. 

8.  If  any  changes  are  made  in  the  information  given  on  appli- 
cation blank,  the  Department  must  be  immediately  notified. 


MILK  AND  MILK-IN8PECTI0K 


167 


RULES  FOR  HANDLING  AND  KEEPING  MILK. 

"  1.  Milk  should  be  kept  in  some  place  where  dust  and  other  im- 
purities cannot  fall  into  it,  such  as  a  box  with  tight-htting  cover; 
preferably  an  ice-box. 

"2.  The  milk  should  be  kept  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  possi- 
ble, not  above  50°  Fahrenheit. 

"  3.  After  the  day's  sales  are  over,  the  measures  and  utensils 
used  in  the  sale  of  milk  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  boiling 
water,  to  which  a  small  amount  of  soda  has  been  added  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  tablespoonful  of  washing  soda  to  a  gallon  of  water. 

"  4.  The  overflow  pipe  from  the  ice-box  in  which  the  milk  is  kept 
must  not  be  connected  directly  with  the  drain-pipe  or  sewer,  but 
must  discharge  into  an  open,  water-supplied,  properly-trapped, 
sewer-connected  sink  (see  See.  217  of  the  Sanitary  Code). 

"  5.  The  ice-box  in  which  the  milk  is  kept  should  be  cleaned,  by 
scrubbing  out  with  hot  soda  solution,  made  as  in  No.  3,  at  least 
twice  a  week. 

"  6.  In  selling  milk,  stir  up  the  contents  of  the  can  thoroughly 
before  measuring  out  the  amount  desired.  This  will  prevent  unin- 
tentional skimming.  In  this  way  the  last  quart  of  milk  sold  from 
the  can  will  contain  as  much  cream  as  the  first  quart  sold. 

"  7.  It  sometimes  happens  that  in  cold  weather  the  milk  may  be 
delivered  to  the  dealer  more  or  less  frozen.  If  such  is  the  case, 
detach  the  ice  from  the  side  of  the  can  and  gently  heat  the  contents 
until  the  ice  is  all  melted.  If  there  is  much  ice  in  the  can  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  do  this  before  selling  the  milk,  otherwise 
the  liquid  part  dipped  out  and  sold  at  first  will  contain  more  of 
the  solid  part  of  the  milk  and  cream,  while  the  ice  remaining  and 
consisting  principally  of  water  will,  after  a  time,  melt,  and  the  re- 
sult will  be  milk  containing  more  water  than  pure  milk,  and  this 
might  be  enough  to  appear  as  though  the  milk  had  been  adulterated 
with  water. 

"  8.  Do  not  place  ice  in  the  milk  if  it  is  desired  to  cool  it  or  keep 
it  cold,  as  the  ice  will  melt,  and  you  will  then  have  adulterated  the 
milk  with  water. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TESTING  MILK.     (BY  THE  CREAM-GAUGE.) 

"  Fill  the  cream-gauge  one-half  full  with  water,  at  a  temperature 
of  120°  Fahrenheit,  to  which  has  been  added  a  few  drops  of  a 
strong  solution  of  washing  soda.   Then,  after  stirring  up  the  con- 


168 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


tents  of  the  can  thoroughly,  fill  the  gauge  to  the  top  mark  ^vith 
the  milk.  Shake  well  and  place  in  very  cold  water  (say  40° 
Fahrenheit).  In  about  30  minutes  the  cream  will  have  risen  and 
the  percentage  can  be  read  off,  remembering  that  the  result  ob- 
served must  be  multiplied  by  2,  as  one-half  (i)  water  and  one-half 
(i)  milk  was  used.  Example:  8%  of  cream  was  observed  by  this 
test;  multiplying  this  by  2  would  be  16%,  which  would  be  the 
true  amount  of  cream  contained  in  the  milk  by  this  test.  Good 
milk  should  show  by  this  test  14  to  18%  of  cream. 

"  To  test  for  water,  the  lactometer  can  be  used  as  follows:  Stir 
the  milk  to  be  tested  so  that  a  fair  sample  can  be  taken.  Warm 
or  cool  enough  milk  to  60°  Fahrenheit  to  fill  the  testing  cylinder. 
Insert  the  lactometer  in  the  milk  in  the  testing  cylinder,  being 
careful  not  to  wet  that  part  of  the  stem  above  the  milk,  and  ob- 
serve where  it  floats.  Pure  milk  will  not  fall  below  the  100°  mark 
on  the  lactometer  at  60°  temperature.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
skimming  the  milk  will  make  the  lactometer  float  higher,  and  the 
addition  of  water  or  cream  may  make  it  sink  lower  than  100°,  but 
if  the  appearance  of  the  milk  upon  the  lactometer  is  noted,  no  one 
can  mistake  watered  milk  for  milk  to  which  cream  has  been  added, 
nor  pure  milk  for  milk  from  which  the  cream  has  been  removed, 
as  in  skimmed  milk.  In  other  words,  if  the  lactometer  floats  below 
100°  and  the  milk  looks  thin,  water  has  been  added.  If  it  floats 
above  100°  and  the  milk  looks  thin,  it  may  be  skimmed,  or 
skimmed  and  Avatered.  But  if  it  floats  above  100°  and  looks 
creamy  and  yellow  and  sticks  to  the  glass,  you  can  be  reasonably 
sure  that  it  is  pure.  Good  average  milk  will  indicate  about  109° 
on  the  lactometer  at  a  temperature  of  60°  Fahrenheit,  and  show 
about  14%  of  cream  by  the  cream  test  given  above." 


CHAPTEK  XVI. 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES. 

Infectious  diseases  are  those  which  are  due  to  some 
external  morbific  agents  of  a  microbic  nature,  i.e.,  mi- 
croscopic organisms,  which  multiply  and  produce  cer- 
tain symptoms  and  pathological  changes  peculiar  to  each 
variety  of  organism. 

The  infectious  diseases  are  divided  into : 

1)  Miasmatic  Diseases.  Those  which  are  due  to 
some  morbific  agent  outside  the  body;  these  diseases 
are  not  communicable  from  one  individual  to  another. 

2)  Contagious  Diseases.  The  morbific  agents  of 
these  are  produced  within  the  body;  these  diseases  are 
communicable  from  one  to  another,  either  directly  by 
contact  with  the  sick  person,  or  indirectly  on  handling 
the  excretion  of  the  diseased  person,  or  objects  with 
which  those  excretions  have  been  infected. 

The  secretions  and  excretions  of  the  body,  w^hich  are 
carriers  of  infection,  vary  as  to  the  disease,  and  are 
the  following : 

1)  Products  of  respiration;  2)  feces  and  urine;  3) 
epithelia  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membranes;  4)  sw^eat, 
milk,  blood,  and  sputum. 

169 


170 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


The  mode  of  infection  is  as  follows: 

1)  By  direct  contact  of  the  healthy  person  with  the 
diseased  one. 

2)  By  indirect  contact  with  the  secretions  from  the 
diseased  person. 

3)  By  clothing,  vessels,  bedding,  and  rooms. 

4)  By  insects,  flies,  mosquitoes,  bugs,  etc. 
6)  By  food,  water,  milk,  meat,  etc. 

6)  By  air  and  dust — the  dried  particles  from  infected 
secretions  floating  in  the  air  and  producing  disease 
through  inspiration. 

The  following  diseases  are  regarded  as  infectious  and 
communicable  from  one  individual  to  another:  Small- 
pox, Cholera,  Scarlet  Fever,  Diphtheria,  Croup,  Yellow 
Fever,  Typhus,  Typhoid,  Measles,  Whooping-cough, 
Tuberculosis,  Cerebro-spinal  Meningitis,  Chicken-pox, 
Leprosy,  Erysipelas,  Septicaemia,  Relapsing  Fever,  Gon- 
orrhoea, and  Syphilis;  also  the  diseases  which  are  com- 
municated from  animals  to  men,  viz.,  Anthrax,  Babies, 
etc. 

To  prevent  the  infection  of  healthy  persons  by  the 
diseases  enumerated  above,  communities  have  adopted 
various  measures.  These  measures  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

1)  Compulsory  reporting  of  infectious  diseases,  (a) 
by  the  physicians  treating  them;  (h)  by  physicians  hear- 
ing of  them;  (c)  and  by  owners  of  houses,  lodging- 
houses,  boarding-houses,  ships,  vessels,  etc. 

2)  Isolation  of  patients  from  healthy  individuals, 
either  by  certain  compulsory  measures  in  the  homes  of 
the  patients,  or  in  hospitals. 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES. 


ITI 


3)  Qitarantine  of  the  infected  person  during  the  pe- 
riod of  communicability  of  the  disease. 

4)  Disinfection  of  the  individual,  his  excretions,  the 
objects  he  comes  in  contact  with,  clothing,  rooms,  etc. 

Xot  all  diseases  regarded  as  infections  are  required 
to  be  reported.  Some  diseases  which  must  be  reported 
in  one  city  are  not  required  to  be  reported  in  another. 
Thus,  venereal  diseases,  which  are  undoubtedly  com- 
municable, and  at  certain  times  even  contagious,  are  not 
required  to  be  reported  for  obvious  reasons.  Again,  in 
some  cities,  certain  special  diseases  are  not  reported. 
For  instance,  typhoid  fever  is  not  reported  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  Dayton,  Jersey  City,  Memphis, 
Omaha,  St.  Paul,  Terre  Haute,  and  Toledo.  Tubercu- 
losis need  not  be  reported  in  quite  a  number  of  cities. 
In  Hartford,  pneumonia  is  required  to  be  reported. 
(Chapin,  Mun.  San.  in  U.  S.) 

As  to  isolation,  quarantine,  and  similar  methods  for 
preventing  the  spread  of  infectious  diseases,  the  follow- 
ing sections  of  the  X.  Y.  San.  Code  cover  most  points : 

"  That  the  phrase  '  contagious  disease '  shall  be  held  to  include 
all  persons  sick,  affected,  or  attacked  by  or  of  a  disease  of  an  in- 
fectious, contagious,  or  pestilential  nature  (more  especially,  how- 
ever, referring  to  cholera,  yellow  fever,  smallpox,  chicken-pox, 
diphtheria  [including  membranous  croup],  ship  or  typhus,  typhoid, 
spotted,  relapsing  and  scarlet  fevers,  and  measles,  and  also  includ- 
ing any  new  disease  of  an  infectious,  contagious,  or  pestilential 
nature),  and  also  any  other  disease  publicly  declared  by  this  Board 
dangerous  to  the  public  health." 

"  Sec.  145.  That  every  physician  shall  report  to  the  Sanitary 
Bureau,  in  writing,  every  person  having  a  contagious  disease  (and 
the  state  of  his  or  her  disease,  and  his  or  her  place  of  dwelling  and 
name,  if  known),  which  such  physician  has  prescribed  for  or  at- 
tended for  the  first  time  since  having  such  a  contagious  disease, 


172 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


during  any  part  of  the  preceding  24  hours;  .  .  .  every  nttending  or 
practising  physician  thereat  must,  at  his  peril,  see  that  such  report 
is  or  has  been  made  by  some  attending  physician. 

"  Sec.  146.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  and  every  practising 
physician  in  the  City  of  New  York  to  report,  in  writing,  to  the 
Board  of  Health,  the  death  of  any  of  his  patients  who  shall  have 
died  in  said  city  of  contagious  or  infectious  disease,  within  24  hours 
thereafter,  and  to  state  in  such  report  the  specific  name  and  type 
of  such  disease. 

"  Sec.  147.  That  every  keeper  of  any  boarding-house  or  lodging- 
house,  and  every  inn-keeper  and  hotel-keeper,  shall,  within  24 
hours,  report  in  writing  to  the  Sanitary  Bureau  the  same  particu- 
lars in  the  last  section  required  of  any  physician,  concerning  any 
person  being  at  any  of  the  aforesaid  houses  or  hotels,  and  attacked 
with  any  contagious  disease." 

"  Sec.  149.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  person  knowing 
of  any  individual  in  said  city  sick  of  any  contagious  disease,  and 
the  duty  of  every  physician  hearing  of  any  such  sick  person,  who 
he  shall  have  reason  to  think  requires  the  attention  of  this  De- 
partment, to  at  once  report  the  facts  to  the  Sanitary  Bureau  in 
regard  to  the  disease,  condition,  and  dwelling-place,  or  condition 
of  such  sick  person. 

"  Sec.  150.  That  the  keepers,  lessees,  tenants,  and  owners  of 
every  boarding-house  and  lodging-house  shall,  within  six  hours 
after  the  fact  shall  come  to  his  or  her  or  their  knowledge,  notify 
the  Sanitary  Bureau,  in  writing,  of  the  fact  of  any  seafaring  man 
or  person  lately  from  any  vessel  being  taken  sick  at  such  house, 
and  shall  in  such  notice  state  where  such  sick  person  may  be  found, 
and  from  what  vessel,  and  when  he  came,  to  the  best  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  person  or  persons  giving  such  notice." 

"  Sec.  153.  That  pulmonary  tuberculosis  is  hereby  declared  to 
be  an  infectious  and  communicable  disease,  dangerous  to  the  pub- 
lic health.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  physician  in  this  city  to 
report  to  the  Sanitary  Bureau,  in  writing,  the  name,  age,  sex,  oc- 
cupation, and  address  of  every  person  having  such  disease  who  has 
been  attended  by  or  who  has  come  under  the  observation  of  such 
physician  for  the  first  time,  within  one  week  of  such  time.  It  shall 
also  be  the  duty  of  the  commissioners  or  managers,  or  the  principal, 
superintendent,  or  physician  of  each  and  every  public  or  private 
institution  or  dispensary  in  this  city  to  report  to  the  Sanitary 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES.  173 

Bureau,  in  writing,  or  to  cause  such  report  to  be  made  by  some 
proper  and  competent  person,  the  name,  age,  sex,  occupation,  and 
last  address  of  every  person  afflicted  with  this  disease  who  is  in 
their  care,  or  who  has  come  under  their  observation  within  one 
week  of  such  time.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  person  sick  with 
this  disease  and  of  every  person  in  attendance  upon  any  one  sick 
with  this  disease,  and  of  the  authorities  of  public  and  private  in- 
stitutions or  dispensaries,  to  observe  and  enforce  all  the  sanitary 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Health  for  preventing  the 
spread  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis." 

INCUBATION  PERIOD,  DURATION  AND  SOURCE  OF  INFECTIOUS 
DISEASE. 


Disease. 


Diphtheria. 


Rubeola  (Ger-  / 
man  measles)  j 
Measles  

Scarlet  fever... 

Smallpox  

Typhus  fever. . 
Typhoid  fever. 

Whooping-  I 
cough  f 
Varicella  


Incubation 
Period. 


3-7  days 

9-21  days 
7-14  days 

1-7  days 

10-14  days 

10-18  days 
14-21  days 

7-14  days 
10-14  days 


Duration  of  Disease. 
Infectiveness. 


-4  weeks.  As  long  as 
the  bacilli  are  found 


2  weeks 

2  weeks.  Before  and 

during  rash 
4-8  weeks.   As  long  as 
skin  is  peeling 

2-  4  weeks.   As  long  as 

skin  is  not  clear 
2-4  weeks 

3-  4  weeks.  As  long  as 
typhoid  bacilli  are 
present  in  dejecta 

4-  12  weeks.  As  long  as 
spasmodic  cough  lasts 

2-3  weeks 


Sources  of  Infection. 


Secretions  from  throat, 
also  objects  which 
come  in  contact  with 
them. 

Skin  secretions  and 
epithelia. 


Excretions  from  the 
bowels. 

Sputum  and  bronchial 
secretions. 
Skin. 


CHAPTEE  XYII. 


DISmFECTIOX  AND  DISIXFECTAXTS. 

We  liave  seen,  in  the  preceding  chapter,  that  one 
of  the  modes  by  which  infectious  diseases  are  com- 
bated is  the  disinfection  of  the  diseased  person,  his 
excretions,  and  all  objects  with  which  he  comes  in 
contact,  either  directly  or  indirectly.  By  disinfection 
is  meant  the  destruction  of  the  morbific  agents  causing 
the  disease.  A  disinfectant  must,  therefore,  be  power- 
ful enough  to  kill  the  germs  and  spores  found  in  the 
infected  substances. 

A  deodorant  is  not  a  disinfectant,  but  is  for  destroy- 
ing the  bad  odors  caused  by  diseased  persons  or  j)utre- 
factive  changes.  It  does  not,  however,  kill  the  germs 
causing  the  odors. 

Disinfectants  are  physical  and  chemical. 

Physical  disinfectants  are  light,  air,  water,  and  ex- 
treme cold  or  heat — dry  or  moist.  Extreme  cold  kills 
many  germs,  though  not  all.  Extreme  heat  kills  all 
germs;  light  kills  some.  Air  and  water  are  not  direct 
germicides,  although  they  are  a  great  help  by  diluting 
the  sources  of  infection.  The  chemical  disinfectants 
are  numerous  and  varied.  The  principal  chemical  sub- 
stances used  for  the  purpose  of  disinfection  are  the  fol- 

174 


DISINFECTION  AND  DISINFECTANTS.  175 


lowing:  (^arbolic  Acid,  Chlorine,  Bromine,  Iodine, 
Corrosive  Sublimate,  Potassium  Permanganate,  Sul- 
phur, Sulphurous  Acid,  Formalin  (Formaldehyde),  Cop- 
per Sulphate,  Lime,  Etc. 

Sulphurous  acid,  formaldehyde,  carbolic  acid,  and 
bromine  are  the  principal  disinfectants  used  wherever 
heat  in  some  of  its  forms  is  not  used. 

The  circular  of  the  Department  of  Health  of  iSTew 
York  City  on  Disinfection  and  Disinfectants,"  in 
Part  IV.,  gives  the  routine  of  disinfection  as  practised 
in  that  city. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

SCHOOL  mSPECTIOK 

The  proper  construction  and  tlie  sanitary  condition  of 
schools  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  community, 
and  the  supervision  of  these  matters  is  entrusted  to 
proper  officials,  usually  in  connection  with  the  various 
educational  boards,  thus  taking  schools  out  of  the  juris- 
diction of  sanitary  officers.  But  the  numerous  private 
schools  existing  in  almost  every  town  must  be,  and  are, 
under  the  supervision  of  sanitary  officers,  and  should  be 
thoroughly  looked  after.  These  schools  are  apt  to  be 
in  bad  sanitary  condition,  as  it  is  seldom  that  their 
heads  are  guided  by  any  sanitary  considerations  in  the 
selection  of  the  places  rented  for  school  purposes.  This 
is  especially  the  case  with  the  numerous  private  schools 
of  the  immigrants  and  foreigners  which  abound  in  large 
cities,  and  the  sanitary  condition  of  which  is  very  de- 
plorable. In  Xew  York  City  no  private  school  is  al- 
lowed in  a  tenement-house,  and  no  school  is  allowed  to 
exist  without  a  permit  from  the  Health  Department, 
whose  Inspector  of  Schools  looks  after  its  sanitary  con- 
dition. 

Another  sanitary  work  in  connection  with  schools  is 
tlie  inspection  of  children,  to  discover  and  isolate  cases 

176 


SCHOOL  INSPECTION. 


177 


of  infectious  diseases.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
schools  are  the  principal  places  whence  infections  dis- 
eases are  widely  spread;  and,  in  order  to  prevent  this, 
school  inspectors  are  employed  to  examine  the  children 
every  day  and  prevent  the  attendance  of  children  ex- 
hibiting symptoms  of  contagions  diseases. 

For  particulars  as  to  school  inspection,  etc.,  see  the 
Eeport  on  School  Inspection  in  Part  IV. 


PART  THIRD. 
SANITARY  INSPECTIOJSr. 


CHAPTER  I. 
SANITATION  AS  A  PEOFESSION. 

EiFTY  years  ago  there  was  no  such  profession  as  Sani- 
tation. There  were  a  number  of  persons  interested  in 
public-health  questions  and  sanitary  problems,  but  these 
were  the  philanthropists  and  public-spirited  men,  the 
pioneers  of  sanitary  reform  who  strove  to  better  the 
condition  of  their  fellow  men;  to  lower  the  death-rate 
of  the  community,  and  to  inculcate  into  the  minds  of 
the  people  the  wise  saying  of  Franklin,  that  Public 
health  is  public  wealth.'' 

Thanks  to  the  unselfish  devotion  and  strenuous  ef- 
forts of  those  pioneers,  great  strides  were  made  in  the 
sanitary  progress  of  the  nation;  vast  reforms  were  un- 
dertaken and  accomplished;  the  health  of  communities 
was  improved ;  the  death-rates  of  city  populations  cut  in 
half,  and  permanent  sanitary  organizations  founded  by 
the  establishment  of  various  boards  of  health  in  villages, 
towns,  and  cities. 

178 


SANITATION  AS  A  PROFESSION. 


179 


The  organization  of  the  various  sanitary  authorities 
in  so  many  places  necessitated  the  employment  of  a 
number  of  sanitary  officers;  this  number  has  steadily 
increased  until  at  present  there  are  several  thousand 
men  in  the  United  States  engaged  in  the  various  de- 
partments connected  with  sanitary  work. 

At  first,  when  the  sanitary  work  was  unorganized  and 
crude,  the  men  engaged  in  the  pursuance  of  the  va- 
rious investigations  were  mostly  volunteers,  principally 
medical  men. 

The  incomparable,  painstaking,  thoroughly  scientific 
reports  left  by  some  of  these  volunteers  are  monuments 
to  their  efficiency;  vide  the  Report  of  the  Quarantine 
Convention  of  1859,  the  Report  on  the  Sanitary  Condi- 
tion of  l^ew  York  of  the  Council  of  Hygiene  in  1866, 
and  others. 

With  the  enlargement  and  widening  of  the  sanitary 
field,  however,  volunteer  work  became  inadequate,  and 
a  number  of  men,  mostly  physicians,  were  appointed  to 
continue  the  work  so  well  begun  by  the  volunteers. 

With  time  and  progress  the  sanitary  field  has  become 
differentiated  and  specialized,  until,  at  present,  we  have 
the  various  branches  of  sanitary  work,  each  with  its 
special  inspectors;  such  as  Health,  Factory,  Sanitary, 
Building,  Plumbing,  Offensive-trades,  Contagious-dis- 
ease, Meat,  Milk,  Fruit,  Tenement-house,  etc..  In- 
spectors, all  embraced  in  the  great  and  noble  profession 
of  Sanitation. 

But  as  the  medicine  of  to-day  differs  from  the  medi- 
cine of  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  as  the  educa- 
tional standard  of  the  physician  of  th^  twentieth  century 


180 


HANDBOOK  OX  SANITATION. 


is  above  that  of  the  nineteenth  century,  so  is  the  sanita- 
tion of  to-day  different  from  that  of  50  years  ago; 
and  the  educational  standard  of  the  sanitary  inspector 
of  to-day  is  different  (or  it  ought  to  be)  from  the  stand- 
ard of  the  sanitary  officers  of  years  ago. 

Unfortunately,  the  sanitary  profession  of  to-day  is 
not  as  yet  what  it  ought  to  be,  not  being  filled  with  the 
best  elements  of  the  medical  and  engineering  profes- 
sions which  are  the  proper  professions  for  sanitary  work. 
The  reasons  for  this  shortcoming  are  the  following : 

1)  Political  selection  of  sanitary  employees. 

2)  Inadequate  compensation. 

3)  Insufficient  education. 

4)  Absence  of  organization  among  the  sanitary  em- 
ployees. 

Let  us  examine  these  causes  more  thoroughly. 
Political  Selection  of  Sanitary  Officers. — Dr.  Chas. 

V.  Chapin,  in  his  book  on  Municipal  Sanitation  in 
the  United  States,"  says:  ^^Unfortunately  most  ap- 
pointees to  official  sanitary  positions  in  the  United 
States  are  entirely  untrained  for  the  duties  they  are  to 
perform.  To  exhibit  some  degree  of  natural  ability  is 
all  that  is  asked,  and  often  this  is  not  required,  the  sole 
qualification  of  the  appointee  being  his  political  service 
to  the  party  which  has  the  appointing  power  .  .  .  the 
successful  candidate  needs  no  other  recommendation 
than  that  of  ^  influential  friends.'  " 

Dr.  Wende,  of  Buffalo,  also  deplores  the  political 
selection  of  sanitary  officers.  (Chicago  Medical  Becord^ 
April,  1901.) 

Of  course,  whik^  conditions  remain  as  they  are;  while 


SANITATION  AS  A  PROFESSION. 


181 


the  sanitary  inspector  is  in  danger  of  losing  his  piace  by 
the  frequent  political  party  upheavals;  while  the  tenure 
of  office  is  insecure  ;  and  while  the  fitness  of  the  candi 
date  is  political  instead  of  scientific,  educated,  intelli 
gent,  and  trained  men  will  neither  seek  nor  get  sanitar 
positions. 

However,  there  is  already  noticeable  in  many  cities 
a  tendency  toward  reform  in  this  direction;  and  thanks 
to  the  various  civil-service  laws,  as  well  as  to  public 
opinion,  there  are  less  changes  made  in  health  and  sani- 
tary departments  than  before,  and  sanitary  officers  are 
left  undisturbed  when  their  fitness  for  their  work  has 
been  proven.  There  is,  therefore,  a  tendency  to  estab- 
lish a  permanent  tenure  of  office  during  good  behavior, 
and  the  position  of  the  sanitary  inspector  begins  to  be 
more  and  more  secure. 

A  permanent  tenure  of  office  should  imply  a  pension 
for  length  of  service  and  disability;  and  in  some  places, 
notably  so  in  Xew  York  City,  quite  a  liberal  pension 
provision  is,  in  fact,  embodied  in  the  Charter  of  1901. 

Let  us  hope,  too,  that  the  time  is  not  distant  when 
the  following  desideratum  of  Dr.  AVende  in  the  article 
quoted  will  be  fulfilled,  viz.:  "  Selection  of  municipal 
Ileal th  officers  for  fitness,  with  secure  tenure  of  office 
and  proper  compensation.  The  municipalities  should 
not  be  exposed  to  unnecessary  risks  by  politics."  This 
brings  us  to  the  next  question  of 

Proper  Compensation. — The  work  of  the  sanitary 
officer  is  manifold,  arduous,  difficult,  and  fratight  with 
many  dangers  to  health  and  life.  If  there  are  any  sine- 
cures in  the  public  employnient,  they  are  not  in  the 


182 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


health  and  sanitary  departments.  There  is  no  class  of 
municipal  employees  whose  work  is  so  constant,  exact- 
ing, difficult,  irregular,  dangerous,  and  important,  as  is 
that  of  the  sanitary  inspectors.  The  sanitary  officer 
has  no  8-hour  work-day,  w^ith  a  Saturday  half -holiday ; 
he  is  always  on  duty.  Day  and  night  he  must  be 
at  his  post,  and  when  going  to  bed  he  is  not  sure 
that  he  will  not  be  called  out  for  some  special  sanitary 
work. 

He  is  responsible  for  the  condition  of  his  district ;  any 
citizen  may  come  up  and  find  fault  with  his  work;  the 
chronic  kicker  who  finds  fault  with  some  intangible  nui- 
sance demands  that  his  theories  be  accepted  by  the 
inspector;  the  one  of  the  tenants,"  who  is  afraid  to 
sign  his  name  to  the  complaint,  threatens  to  go  to  the 
Mayor  if  his  complaint  is  not  attended  to  at  once. 
Apart  from  all  these,  the  inspector  in  the  performance 
of  his  duties  directly  endangers  his  health  and  life,  for 
he  has  to  climb  rickety  stairways,  go  down  in  cellars  full 
of  water  and  mud,  inhale  the  noxious  fumes  of  open 
drains  and  sewers,  and  come  in  contact  with  diphtheria, 
scarlet  fever,  typhoid,  and  other  infectious  diseases 
from  which  the  ordinary  citizen  flees  in  horror. 

If  we  add  to  the  above  the  fact  that  a  sanitary  of 
ficer  must  possess  certain  intellectual  and  educational 
qualifications,  as  will  be  seen  later,  we  should  at  least 
expect  to  find  the  compensation  of  the  officer  adequate 
to  recompense  him  for  his  arduous  and  dangerous  work. 
But  on  the  contrary  we  find  the  facts  are  that 
so  far  from  his  receiving  a  high  salary,  he,  on  the  con- 
trary, gets  a  smaller  salary  than  untrained  and  luiedu- 


SAJSITATION  AS  A  PROFESSION. 


183 


cated  officers  in  other  departments  of  tlie  municipality. 
In  Xew  York  City  a  janitor  of  a  public  school,  a  messen- 
ger in  some  department,  or  some  other  such  employee, 
receives  more  than  the  physician  or  engineer  employed 
in  the  Health  Department. 

According  to  Dr.  Chapin,  the  salaries  of  sanitary  in- 
spectors in  the  United  States  range  from  $600  per 
annum  in  Rochester,  Cincinnati,  Charleston,  and  Hart- 
ford, to  $1200  in  Xew  York.  The  average  salary  in 
smaller  cities  is  $900,  and  in  larger  $1000. 

Xow,  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  salaries  are  inade- 
quate for  the  work  performed,  and  for  the  qualified 
men  who  are  required  for  sanitary  positions.  Most 
sanitary  positions  are  filled  by  civil  and  sanitary  engin- 
eers and  physicians,  and  it  is  evident  that  such  men 
cannot  be  satisfied  with  the  above  salaries.  Add  to  this 
also  the  fact  that  in  no  position  are  advancement  and 
increase  of  salary  less  to  be  expected  than  in  municipal 
positions.  When  a  man  works  for  a  private  corpora- 
tion he  expects  a  rise  in  position  and  influence  propor- 
tionate to  the  years  of  employment,  and  the  employer 
need  ask  no  one  for  peniiission  to  raise  the  salary  of  a 
trusted  employee.  In  municipal  positions  it  is  difficult 
to  secure  an  advancement ;  and  every  increase  of  salary- 
raises  such  a  howl  from  the  organs  of  the  party  not  in 
power  that  the  heads  of  departments  prefer  to  let  effi- 
cient sanitary  workers  of  many  years  remain  at  a  '^ms- 
erable  salary  rather  than  risk  harsh  criticism  from  un- 
friendly organs. 

In  my  opinion,  inspectors  in  large  cities  should  begin 
A\ith  a  salary  of  $1000  or  $1200  per  annum  and  each 


184 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


year  should  be  raised  by  a  certain  sum,  say  $50-60,  so 
that  after  15  or  20  years  the  salary  of  the  sanitary 
inspector  will  reach  an  amount  in  proportion  to  his 
value  and  experience. 

Inadequate  Education. — In  England  the  public- 
health  laws  require  that  a  sanitary  inspector  shall  have 
a  certificate  from  one  of  the  several  sanitary  institutes 
giving  diplomas  in  sanitation,  after  a  course  of  study 
and  thorough  examination.  Here  in  the  United  States 
we  have  no  such  special  institutes,  and  no  educational 
requirement  is  made  of  the  candidate  except  a  civil- 
service  examination,  which  is,  at  best,  insufficient  to 
show  the  qualification  of  the  candidate.  It  is  true,  some 
medical  and  other  colleges  have  lately  established 
courses  in  sanitary  science,  but  the  teaching  is  as  yet 
very  rudimentary,  and  the  students  are  not  those  who 
usually  seek  sanitary  position^^. 

Absence  of  Organization  and  Esprit  de  Corps 
among  Sanitary  Officers. — In  England  there  are  sev- 
eral powerful  sanitary  organizations,  such  as  the  Sani- 
tary Inspectors,  the  Health  Officers'  Association,  the 
jN'ational  Health  Workers,  etc.,  and  almost  every  sani- 
tary officer  of  every  hamlet,  village,  or  city,  belongs  to 
one  or  other  of  these  organizations.  There  are  also 
quite  a  number  of  very  able  and  influential  sanitary 
monthly  and  Aveekly  papers  devoted  solely  to  sanitation, 
and  read  by  inspectors.  We  have  nothing  of  the  kind 
in  the  United  States.  There  are  only  one  or  two 
monthly  journals,  hardly  ever  read  by  sanitary  officers, 
and  there  is  no  organization  Avhatever  among  the  sev- 


SANITATION  AS  A  PROFESSION. 


185 


eral  thousand  employees  of  the  various  health  depart- 
ments throughout  the  States.* 

The  evils  enumerated  and  discussed  in  detail  must  be 
eradicated  before  sanitation,  as  a  profession,  will  attain 
a  higher  place  and  receive  the  recognition  to  which  it  is 
entitled. 

The  objects  sought  should  be : 

The  selection  of  sanitary  officers  for  fitness  only, 
after  passing  a  certain  educational  test;  a  permanent 
tenure  of  office;  a  substantial  salary  at  the  beginning, 
increasing  every  year,  with  a  jDension  after  20  years; 
also,  a  thorough  organization  of  all  workers  in  sanita- 
tion, with  news  organs  and  proper  sanitary  publications 
of  their  own;  meetings,  conventions,  etc. 

*  The  recently  organized  *'  Sanitary  and  Hygienic  Society  of  New 
York,"  the  membership  of  which  consists  of  the  sanitary  officers 
of  the  various  boroughs ;  also  the  "  Vermont  School  for  Health 
Officers  "  are  the  first  steps  toAvards  organization  among  sanitary 
employees,  to  be  followed,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  by  organization  in 
other  cities.  The  New  York  Society  has  a  very  able  organ  in  its 
"Public  Health  Record." 


CHAPTEE  II. 


QUALIFICATIONS  FOE  AND  AET  OF  INSPECTION. 

Qualifications. — He  who  intends  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  profession  of  sanitation  must  be  possessed 
of  certain  qualifications.  In  the  first  place,  he  should  be 
blessed  with  a  robust,  strong  constitution,  and  perfect 
health,  otherwise  he  will  not  be  able  to  stand  the  wear 
and  tear  incident  to  the  profession.  He  should  have 
perfect  eyesight,  hearing,  and  sense  of  smell.  He 
should  have  at  least  a  high-school  education;  should 
know  something  of  geology,  physics,  chemistry,  mathe- 
matics, mechanics,  physiology,  and  the  allied  sciences, 
and  should  be  able  to  draw.  He  should  have  made  a 
thorough  study  of  sanitation,  both  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical; should  understand  thoroughly  the  principles  of 
ventilation,  drainage,  plumbing,  etc.,  besides  knowing 
enough  of  practical  building  construction,  etc.,  that 
he  may  not  be  hoodwinked  by  builders  or  plumbers. 
The  inspector  should  also  be  fully  conversant  with  all 
the  State  and  local  laws  concerning  his  specialty,  and 
possess  the  intelligence  to  pursue  the  investigations 
which  from  time  to  time  may  be  entrusted  to  him.  The 
inspector  should,  of  course,  have  that  command  of  the 
language  which  will  enable  him  to  make  a  creditable  re- 

180 


QUALIFICATIONS  AND  ART  OF  INSPECTION.  187 

port  to  his  superiors.  He  slioiild  be  sober,  industrious, 
observant,  vigilant,  conscientious,  honest,  and  thor- 
oughtly  imbued  with  the  noble  sj^irit  of  his  profession. 
He  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  he  is  the  physician 
of  the  community;  that  the  health  and  life  of  the  peo- 
ple entrusted  to  his  care  depend  upon  the  good  work  he 
is  doing  in  his  field,  and  that  every  effort  of  his  to  abate 
a  public  nuisance  lowers  the  death-rate  in  his  district 
and  conduces  to  the  health  of  his  fellow  men. 

The  Art  of  Inspection. — Sanitary  inspection  means 
the  application  of  the  teachings  of  the  science  of  sani- 
tation to  practice,  and  as  such,  inspection  becomes  an 
art  in  which  skill  and  experience  count  highly.  Any 
one  can  inspect  a  house,  and  anybody  may  examine  a 
public  nuisance,  but  not  every  one  can  find  all  the  de- 
fects in  the  house,  or  discover  the  cause  of  the  nuisance ; 
to  do  this  it  requires  not  only  theoretical  knowledge, 
but  skill  and  experience  as  well.  The  physician  just 
from  college  may  know  more  of  anatomy,  etc.,  than  the 
old  practitioner;  but  wdio  will  not  pity  the  poor  unfor- 
tunate who  entrusts  the  diagnosis  of  his  malady  to  the 
youngster  just  from  the  college  benches.  So  it  is  with 
the  sanitary  inspector.  The  probationer  may  and  should 
know  much  regarding  the  theory  of  sanitation,  but 
he  will  make  the  mistake  of  his  life  if  he  thinks  he 
knows  it  all ;  and  he  may  find  himself  rather  humiliated 
when  he  fails  to  find  defects  which  an  ignorant  plumber 
is  able  to  point  out  to  him  in  a  moment.  In  sanitation, 
as  in  any  other  profession,  experience  and  practice  are 
required  before  the  inspector  can  be  depended  upon  to 
thoroughly  know  and  understand  his  subject,  and  be 


188 


HANDBOOK  OX  SAXITATIOX. 


able  to  make  practical  application  of  his  theoretical 
knowledge. 

One  of  the  principal  points  the  inspector  has  to  learn 
is  to  distinguish  between  when  he  is  expected  to  be  an 
expert,  and  when  he  is  nothing  more  than  a  witness. 
The  inspector  is  the  ears  and  eyes  of  the  sanitary  au- 
thority; and  when  sent  out  to  inspect  a  building,  etc., 
he  must  state  facts  oxly,  and  nothing  more,  and  let  his 
superiors  draw  the  conclusions,  etc.  When,  however, 
he  is  empowered  to  investigate  the  causes  of  a  public 
nuisance,  he  becomes  an  expert,  and  here  he  must  use 
sound  judgment,  and  be  prepared  to  support  his  con- 
clusions with  his  theoretical  knowledge  and  practical 
experience. 


CHAPTER  III. 


TENEMEXT-HOUSE  mSPECTIOK 

The  defects  in  tenement-houses  are  of  three  kinds : 

1)  Defects  of  construction. 

2)  Defects  of  maintenance. 

3)  Defects  of  condition. 

For  the  first  the  real-estate  men  and  builders  are  re- 
sponsible. 

The  responsibility  for  the  second  rests  upon  the 
owner  of  the  house,  or  his  agent  and  housekeeper. 

The  fault  for  the  third  class  of  defects  lies  solely 
\vith  the  tenant  and  occupant. 

A  badly-constructed  house  may  be  kept  in  good  sani- 
tary order  if  the  owner  keeps  it  in  good  repair,  and  the 
tenants  maintain  it  in  good  condition;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  best-constructed  house  will  be  in  ruins  in  a 
short  time  if  neglected  by  the  landlord  and  abused  by 
the  occupants. 

So  it  is  also  between  the  landlord  and  tenant.  Xo 
matter  how  clean  the  people  of  the  house  may  be,  the 
house  will  become  a  pest-hole  if  the  landlord  allows  the 
roof  to  leak,  the  tank  to  fill  ^\T.th  dirt,  the  sewer  to  be 
obstructed,  the  walls  and  ceilings  to  remain  encrusted 
with  filth.   On  the  other  hand,  no  matter  how  much  the 

189 


190 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


o'wner  may  spend  on  maintaining  hie  house  in  good  re- 
pair, and  on  cleaning  and  beautifying  it,  the  house  is 
bound  to  become  a  menace  to  health  and  a  breeding- 
place  for  bacteria,  if  the  class  of  tenants  is  such  that 
cleanliness  is  unknown  among  them;  if  they  persist  in 
tearing  down  walls,  piling  refuse  everywhere,  making 
holes  in  pipes,  abusing  fixtures,  etc. 

These  considerations  have  to  be  kept  in  view  in  tene- 
ment-house inspection,  in  order  to  know  how  to  inspect 
and  whom  to  make  responsible  for  the  defects  found 
and  the  conditions  discovered  detrimental  to  health. 

An  inspection  of  tenement-houses  as  to  construction 
and  defects  in  them,  also  as  to  light  and  ventilation, 
should  be  made  by  the  building,  light,  and  ventilation 
inspectors  during  and  after  construction  of  the  build- 
ing. The  sanitary  or  tenement-house  inspector  should 
attend  to  the  inspection  of  the  defects  of  repair  and 
maintenance  of  the  house,  while  the  inspection  of  the 
condition  in  which  the  house  is  kept  by  the  tenants 
ought  to  be  entrusted  to  the  sanitary  police. 

The  time  an  inspection  of  a  tenement-house  ought  to 
require  depends  upon  the  kind  of  inspection  made,  as 
well  as  upon  the  number  of  stories  and  apartments  the 
house  contains.  To  peep  into  the  cellar,  glance  at  the 
privy  accommodations,  look  up  into  the  halls,  and  take 
in  the  view  of  the  yard,  may  mean  an  inspection;  and, 
unfortunately,  many  an  inspector  is  compelled  to  do  so 
from  the  stress  of  work  and  the  enormous  size  of  his  dis- 
trict. But  it  is  not  an  inspection,  and  need  not  take 
more  than  a  few  minutes  of  his  time. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  thorough  inspection  of  a  house. 


TENEMENT-HOUSE  INSPECTION. 


191 


an  examination  of  the  constructiou^  ventilation,  light, 
plumbing,  drainage,  and  condition  of  a  five-storv  tene- 
ment-house, requires  not  only  skill,  experience,  and  pa- 
tience, but  also  time,  and  can  hardly  be  done  in  less  than 
several  hours.  Such  an  inspection  as  covered  in  the 
^^^^'otes  of  a  Complete  Inspection  of  a  Tenement-house," 
in  the  following  chapters,  must  take  quite  a  few  hours; 
but,  once  done,  may  be  put  on  record,  and  will  facilitate 
subsequent  inspections  of  the  same  house.  Therefore, 
every  tenement-house  ought  to  be  inspected  in  such  a 
thorough  manner  at  least  once  a  year,  and  the  results 
of  inspection  carefully  recorded,  so  that  the  subsequent 
inspections  need  not  require  as  much  time.  This  is  one 
reason  why  an  inspector  should  be  kept  for  a  long  time 
in  the  same  district;  for,  after  a  certain  time,  he  be- 
comes intimately  acquainted  with  every  house  in  his 
district,  and  will  be  better  able  to  take  care  of  his  dis- 
trict and  watch  for  defects,  violations  of  the  law,  and 
public  nuisances,  than  the  inspector  recently  placed  in 
a  district. 

The  mode  of  inspecting  a  tenement-house  may  differ 
somewhat  with  every  inspector.  Some  begin  in  the  cel- 
lar and  work  up  to  the  roof;  others  begin  at  the  roof 
and  inspect  while  going  down  to  the  cellar.  The  best 
way  would  be,  in  my  opinion,  to  combine  both  methods, 
and  begin  in  the  cellar,  examining  and  noting  all  de- 
fects while  going  up  to  the  roof,  and  then  go  over  the 
same  field  and  verify,  correct,  and  complete  the  inspec- 
tion as  one  goes  down  again. 

Here  I  mav  add  one  thing  which  the  inspector  must 
always  bear  in  mind,  and  that  is:  to  mind  his  own  busi- 


192 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


ness  and  never,  never  talk  to  the  owner,  liousekeeper, 
or  tenants  about  his  inspection,  his  work,  w^hat  he  finds, 
and  what  he  is  going  to  report.  The  inexperienced  in- 
spector may  feel  benevolently  disposed  to  his  fellow 
man,  and  may  not  be  able  to  withstand  the  wiles  of  the 
ubiquitous  landlord,  who  will  Avant  to  know  the  report 
and  finding  of  the  inspector;  but  be  assured  that  his 
every  innocent  remark  may  find  its  way  into  higher 
quarters,  and  he  may  find  himself  a  victim  of  his  own 
loquacity.  The  inspector  is  sent  to  investigate  and  make 
his  report  to  his  chief;  and,  until  he  makes  such  report, 
all  he  sees  and  discovers  must  not  be  talked  about  nor 
divulged  to  any  one ;  and  it  is  a  wise  policy  to  gently  but 
firmly  inform  the  too-insistent  owner,  or  others,  that 
the  inspector  must  first  make  his  report  to  his  superior, 
and  that  in  due  time  the  owner  will  know  what  the  in- 
spector has  to  report. 

Another  matter  of  importance  to  be  kept  in  mind  dur- 
ing inspection  of  tenement-houses,  as  well  as  other  in- 
spections, is  neither  to  be  too  lenient  nor  too  strict, 
neither  to  fear  nor  favor  the  owner  of  the  house,  but 
always  to  give  facts  as  they  are  and  nothing  more,  no 
matter  how  the  inspector  may  be  treated  by  the  care- 
taker or  owner  of  the  house.  Some  owmers  or  agents 
of  houses,  when  meeting  an  inspector  on  duty  in  their 
houses,  are  apt  to  become  indignant,  insolent,  and  over- 
bearing; nevertheless  the  inspector  should  not  be  in- 
fiuenced  by  this  in  submitting  his  report.  Above  all, 
the  inspector  must  remember  his  duty,  his  oath,  and  his 
office  as  guardian  of  the  public  health,  and  be  above 
petty,  selfish,  and  small  considerations. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


EULES  AND  REGULATIONS  FOR  SANITARY  IN- 
SPECTORS. 

In  small  municipalities  the  executive  health  officer 
performs  the  duties  of  a  sanitary  inspector;  in  larger 
places,  however,  special  inspectors  are  appointed  to  ex- 
amine sanitary  conditions,  inspect  houses,  report  on 
public  nuisances,  etc.  In  New  Jersey  every  town  of 
2000  inhabitants  must  appoint  a  sanitary  inspector, 
otherwise  the  State  Board  of  Health  is  entitled  to  ap- 
point one  and  charge  his  salary  to  the  town.  There  are 
some  cities  with  a  large  population,  however,  where 
there  is  not  one  inspector.  In  some  cities  the  sanitary 
inspectors  are  recruited  from  the  regular  police  force. 
In  Chicago  there  are  5  women  inspectors.  In  New 
York,  during  the  existence  of  the  mercantile  division  of 
the  Health  Department,  10  women  were  employed. 

Inspectors  are,  as  a  rule,  always  on  duty;  that  is,  they 
can  be  called  any  time  of  day  or  night  to  perform 
sanitary  work  without  extra  compensation.  However, 
this  is  done  only  in  cases  of  emergency,  epidemics,  and 
special  dangers  to  public  health.  The-  regular  time  de- 
voted by  inspectors  to  their  work  varies  from  6  to  9 
hours  a  day.  In  New  York  City  inspectors  are  required 

193 


194 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


to  work  from  9  a.  m.  till  4  p.  m.,  with  one  hour  for  lunch. 
In  Denver  the  inspection  hours  are  from  8  a.  m.  to  4 
p.  M.,  with  one  hour  for  lunch.  In  Augusta,  Ga.,  from 
7  A.  M.  to  6  p.  M.,  with  two  hours  for  lunch. 

In  Atlanta,  Cambridge,  Milwaukee,  Cincinnati,  Pitts- 
burg, Columbus,  Ga.;  St.  Paul,  San  Prancisco,  Head- 
ing (and  in  New  York  City,  the  tenement-house  inspect- 
ors), inspectors  are  required  to  w^ear  uniforms. 

Inspectors  are  required  to  report  at  the  office  at  cer- 
tain times,  which  differ  in  each  city.  In  ^^Tew  York  in- 
spectors report  three  times  a  week.  In  Denver  they  re- 
port daily  at  4  p.  m.,  besides  being  required  to  commu- 
nicate with  the  office  twice  a  day  by  telephone.  In 
Providence  inspectors  report  twice  a  day  at  the  main 
office.  In  Charleston  the  inspectors  are  required  to 
visit  50  premises  daily,  report  at  the  office  every  day  at 
noon,  and  bring  a  report  with  50  signatures  of  the  oc- 
cupants of  the  premises  they  inspected.  In  most  of  the 
large  cities  rules  and  regulations  are  provided  for  the 
conduct  of  the  inspectors.  The  most  elaborate  and 
thorough  regulations  are  those  of  I^^ew  York  City,  ex- 
cerpts from  which  are  given  below: 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  NEW  YORK  CITY  CHARTER  OF  1901 
ON  SANITARY  INSPECTORS. 

"Sec.  1185.  Sanitary  Inspectors. — The  Board  of  Health  shall 
appoint  and  commission  at  least  fifty  sanitary  inspectors  (this  is 
exclusive  of  the  Police  and  the  other  divisions  of  the  Depart- 
ment, such  as  contagious  diseases,  food,  offensive  trades,  schools, 
etc.),  and  shall  have  power  to  appoint  20  additional  sanitary  in- 
spectors, if  it  deems  that  number  necessary,  and  from  time  to 
time  to  prescribe  the  duties  of  each  of  said  inspectors,  and  the 
place  of  their  performance,  and  of  all  other  persons  exercising 


SANITARY  INSPECTORS 


195 


any  authority  under  said  Department,  except  as  herein  specially 
provided;  but  30  of  such  inspectors  shall  be  physicians  of  skill 
and  of  practical  professional  experience  in  said  city.  The  addi- 
tional sanitary  inspectors  heretofore  duly  appointed  and  com- 
missioned, either  in  New  York  City  or  in  the  City  of  Brooklyn, 
may  be  included  among  the  sanitary  inspectors  mentioned  in 
this  section,  and  may  continue  to  act  as  such  without  reappoint- 
ment, but  nothing  herein  contained  shall  curtail  any  of  the  powers 
vested  in  the  Department  of  Health  by  this  act,  and  the  number 
of  sanitary  inspectors  for  whom  provision  is  made  in  this  section 
shall  be  exclusive  of  the  special  inspectors  for  whom  provision  is 
made  in  section  1186  and  elsewhere  in  this  act.  All  of  the  said 
inspectors  shall  have  such  practical  knowledge  of  scientific  or 
sanitary  matters  as  qualify  them  for  the  duties  of  their  office. 
Each  of  such  inspectors  shall,  once  in  each  week,  make  a  written 
report  to  said  Department,  stating  what  duties  he  has  performed, 
and  where  he  has  performed  them,  and  also  such  facts  as  have 
come  to  his  knowledge  connected  with  the  purposes  of  this  chapter 
as  are  by  him  deemed  worthy  of  the  attention  of  said  Depart- 
ment, or  such  as  its  regulations  may  require  of  him;  which  re- 
ports, with  the  other  reports  herein  elsewhere  mentioned,  shall 
be  filed  among  the  records  of  the  said  Department."' 

"  Sec.  1321.  Pension  for  physician  or  employee  disabled  by 
reason  of  performance  of  duty. — The  board  of  trustees  of  said 
fund  shall  have  power  to  grant  as  pension  to  any  physician  or 
employee  in  the  Health  Department  of  The  City  of  New  York,  who 
shall,  as  a  consequence  of  the  actual  performance  of  his  duty, 
and  without  any  fault  or  misconduct  on  his  part,  have  become 
permanently  disabled  physically  or  mentally,  so  as  to  be  unfit  to 
perform  full  duty,  a  sum  not  to  exceed  one-half,  nor  less  than  one- 
fourth  of  his  rate  of  compensation  per  annum  as  such  physician 
or  employee,  as  the  case  may  be. 

"  Sec.  1322.  Pensions  to  personal  representatives  of  physician 
or  employee  who  shall  die  from  disease  or  injuries  suffered  in 
consequence  of  his  performance  of  duty. — Whenever  such  phy- 
sician or  employee  shall  die  while  in  the  service  of  the  Health 
Department  from  disease  contracted  or  injuries  sustained  by  him 
as  a  consequence  of  the  actual  performance  of  his  duty,  without 
any  fault  or  misconduct  on  his  part,  leaving  a  widow,  the  said 
board  of  tiiistees  of  said  pension  fund  may  grant,  award  or  pay 


196  HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


to  the  widow  of  said  physician  or  employee  the  sum  of  $300  an- 
nually, during  her  life,  so  long  as  she  remains  a  widow;  and  if 
there  be  no  widow  of  any  such  physician  or  employee,  but  he  shall 
leave  minor  children  under  eighteen  surviving  him,  then  said 
$300  may  be  given,  awarded  and  paid  to  said  children  under 
eighteen  years  of  age." 

"  Sec.  1323a.  Pension  for  twenty  years*  service. — Any  phy- 
sician or  employee  who  has  or  shall  have  performed  duty  as  such 
physician  or  employee  in  any  Department  of  Health  in  The  City  of 
Xew  York,  for  a  period  of  20  years,  or  upward,  upon  his  own 
application,  in  writing,  or  upon  a  certificate  and  report  of  a 
board  of  physicians,  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Health,  certifying 
that  such  physician  or  employee  is  permanently  disabled,  so  as  to 
be  unfit  for  further  duty  as  such  physician  or  employee  shall  be 
retired  from  active  service  by  resolution  of  the  Board  of  Health 
of  the  Health  Department  of  The  City  of  Xew  York,  and  placed 
upon  the  Health  Department  pension  roll,  and  thereupon  shall  be 
awarded,  granted,  and  paid  from  said  Health  Department  pension 
fund  by  the  trustees  thereof,  an  annual  sum  during  his  lifetime 
not  exceeding  one-half  the  ordinary  full  pay  of  a  physician  or  em- 
ployee in  the  Health  Department  service  of  the  rank  of  the  phy- 
sician or  employee  so  retired  ;  provided,  however,  that  no  pension 
granted  under  this  or  the  preceding  sections,  shall  exceed  the  sum 
of  $1200  per  annum.  Pensions  granted  under  this  section  shall  be 
for  the  natural  life  of  the  person  receiving  the  same,  and  shall 
not  be  revoked,  repealed,  or  diminished." 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  RULES  AXD  REGULATIONS  OF  THE 
DEPARTMENT  OF  HEALTH,  NEW  YORK  CITY, 
ON  SANITARY  INSPECTORS. 

"  The  Sanitary  Superintendent,  the  Assistant  Sanitary  Superin- 
tendents, and  all  Inspectors  shall  be  considered  always  on  duty." 

"  All  officers  and  employees  of  the  Department  of  Health  shall 
be  at  all  times  courteous  and  respectful  to  all  persons  with  whom 
they  come  in  contact  in  the  performance  of  their  duties;  all  officers 
and  employees  of  the  Department  of  Health  must  be  protected 
from  smallpox  by  proper  vaccination.  Intoxication  or  the  use  of 
intoxicating  beverages  during  the  hours  of  service  are  strictly 
forbidden." 


SANITARY  INSPECTORS, 


197 


"  Inspectors  liave  general  charge,  and  must  be  held  responsible 
for  the  sanitary  condition  of  their  respective  districts.  It  is  their 
duty  to  report  in  writing  all  violations  of  the  law,  Sanitary 
Code  and  regulations  of  the  Board  coming  under  their  observation, 
whether  such  violations  belong  to  the  class  under  their  especial 
charge  or  not.  Such  reports  should  be  accompanied  with  recom- 
mendations and  suggestions  for  the  consideration  of  the  Sanitary 
Superintendent." 

"  Inspectors  shall  wear  their  badges  prominently  displayed 
when  engaged  in  their  official  duties.  On  entering  any  house  or 
premises  they  must  announce  their  authority  and  the  object  of 
their  visit,  and,  while  endeavoring  to  avoid  giving  offence,  must 
make  their  investigations  minutely.  If  resistance  is  offered  to 
an  Inspector  in  the  performance  of  his  duties,  he  will  at  once  re- 
port the  fact. 

"  Every  Sanitary  Inspector  and  every  Medical  Inspector  not  a 
Diagnostician,  and  every  Vaccinator,  must  give  to  the  work  of 
this  Department  seven  hours  daily,  except  on  Sundays  and  legal 
holidays.  Saturday  being  a  half  holiday  by  statute,  three  hours 
will  constitute  a  Saturday's  work.  When  compliance  with  this 
rule  is  impossible,  resignations  will  be  expected. 

"  Inspectors  must  carefully  inspect  premises  mentioned  in  com- 
plaints referred  to  them  and  make  full  and  intelligent  reports 
thereon.  The  modification  of  orders  is  undesirable,  and  should 
be  rendered  unnecessary  by  the  intelligence  and  completeness  of 
Inspector's  recommendations.  Thej'  are  required  to  make  rein- 
spections  promptly  and  carefully.  A  delay  of  more  than  forty- 
eight  hours  in  making  a  reinspection  must  be  reported  to  the 
President,  unless  such  delay  is  authorized  by  the  Chief  Sanitary 
Inspector,  who  will  thus  assume  the  responsibility.  Discretion  in 
permitting  a  tardy  compliance  with  an  order  rests  with  the  Board 
and  not  with  the  Inspector. 

"  Inspectors  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  existence  of  remedia- 
ble public  nuisances  within  their  respective  districts,  and  are  ex- 
pected to  find  them  by  original  inspection.  If  unable  to  secure 
their  promjjt  correction  by  personal  efforts,  they  must  report 
them  to  the  Board,  taking  special  care  to  correctly  name  the 
owners.  When  not  otherwise  employed  on  official  business,  they 
are  expected  to  make  a  house-to-house  inspection  of  tenements, 
factories,  and  all  causes  of  nuisance  in  their  districts.    The  law 


198 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


gives  the  Board  of  Health  power  to  require  that  such  conditions 
shall  be  thoroughly  and  properly  corrected,  and  when  this  is  im 
practicable,  to  vacate  houses.  It  is  prepared  to  use  this  power 
The  object  of  assigning  Inspectors  to  districts  is  to  familiarize 
them  with  local  conditions.  Every  Inspector  is  expected  to  know 
his  district  intimately,  and  his  efficiency  will  be  judged  not  so 
much  by  what  he  claims  to  have  done  as  by  the  sanitary  condition 
of  his  district.  The  existence  there  of  undiscovered  and  unie 
ported  nuisances  which  should  have  been  found  and  reported  will 
be  held  to  indicate  incompetence  or  unfaithfulness." 


NUMBER   OF   SANITARY    AND    OTHER   INSPECTORS  IN 
THE  FOLLOWING  CITIES. 

Note. — The  following  list,  which  is  of  course  incomplete,  is 
based  on  Dr.  Chapin's  book: 


Allegheny  

Asbury  Park  . .   , . . . 

Atlanta  

Augusta  

Baltimore  

Boston  

Brockton  

Brookline  

Buffalo  

Cambridge  

Charlestown  

Chicago  

Cincinnati  

Cleveland  

Columbus  

District  of  Columbia. 

Dayton  

Denver  

Evansville  

Fitchburg  

Hartford  


U  <D 

§•5  0 


2 
7 
5 
6 
16 

*i* 

6 

3 
4 
34 
20 
20 
8 
7 
2 
11 
1 


B'i 
-2  ^  • 

S  CO 


1 

11 

2 


14 
2 


o  P* 

5  « 


O W3  w 

-  *  S 


1 

4 

20 
4 


SAyiTARY  lySPECTOliS. 


199 


NUMBER  OF   SANITARY    AND    OTHER    INSPECTORS  IN 
THE  FOLLOWING  CITIES.— Continued. 


Haverhill  

Hclyoke  

Indianapolis   . .  .  . 

Lawrence  

Lowell  

Lynn  

Louisville  

Manchester  

Memphis ...   . .  . . 

Milwaukee  

Minneapolis  

New  Bedford  

Newark  

New  Haven. . . .. . 

New  Orleans  

Newton  

New  York  

Omaha  

Paterson  

Pittsburg  

Philadelphia  

Providence  

Reading  

Richmond  

Rochester  

St.  Paul  

St.  Louis  

Salt  Lake  City. . . , 
San  Francisco. , . . 

Somerville  

Springfield,  Mass. 

Syracuse  

Toledo  

Utica  

Wilmington,  Del . 


4 

2 

'2' 

12 
13 
7 


!  15 
I  4 
19 
3 
61 


17 


4 
5 
6 

.... 

5 
1 

*2 

10 
3 
4 


. 

S  ^  2 
35  o 

1 
1 

2 
1 


4 

2 
1 
1 
1 

... 

50 

*i* 

5 

13 
3 
1 


O  c 
o  » 


4 
3 

"2 

14 

26* 


2 
6 

is 


50 
1 

1 
5 
1 


7 

200 


200 


CHAPTER  V. 


CIVIL-SERVICE  EXAMINATIONS. 

A  CIVIL-SERVICE  examination  is  not  the  best  test  of 
the  fitness  of  a  candidate;  but  in  the  absence  of  any 
better,  and  in  the  absence  of  proper  schools  for  sani- 
tary training,  such  examinations  show,  at  least,  whether 
a  candidate  has  any  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  which 
he  is  examined. 

The  questions  put  in  the  various  sanitary  examina- 
tions are,  as  a  rule,  fair,  and  not  very  difficult  for  any 
one  with  a  knowledge  of  sanitation  to  answer.  A  very 
important  part  of  the  examination  is  that  containing  the 
questions  bearing  on  the  local  laws  of  the  department 
in  which  the  examination  is  held,  and  the  candidate 
must  make  a  thorough  study  of  these  laws. 

From  10  to  30  questions  are  given  to  the  applicant, 
who  has  from  5  to  G  hours  in  which  to  answer  them. 
Among  so  many  questions  there  are  a  number  which  are 
easy  to  answer,  a  number  somewhat  more  difficult,  and 
a  few  to  answer  which  may  not  be  possible  to  the 
candidate.  The  best  procedure  is  to  begin  with  the 
easiest  questions  first;  answer  them  as  thoroughly  as 
possible,  then  to  proceed  to  the  more  difficult  and  leave 
the  most  difficult  for  the  last;  otherwise,  if  the  appli' 

300 


CI  VIL-SEll  VICE  EX  AMI N A  TIONS. 


201 


cant  begins  with  the  hard  questions  first,  he  is  discour- 
aged, loses  the  time  in  which  he  might  be  answering  the 
easier  questions,  and  loses  all  spirit  and  hope,  so  that  he 
is  unfit  to  give  good  answers  to  questions  which  at  first 
Avould  have  been  very  easy.  The  answers  and  explan- 
ations must  be  clear,  short,  and  to  the  point.  The  candi- 
date is  not  expected  to  write  a  treatise  on  each  subject, 
but  merely  to  give  a  clear  and  readable  opinion,  so  that 
the  examiner  may  judge  how  much  the  applicant  knows 
of  the  subject.  Legible  handwriting  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage in  civil-service  examinations,  as  the  examiners 
are  but  human,  and  often  in  despair  of  deciphering  the 
writing  of  an  able  paper,  may  give  up  the  task  and  leave 
the  candidate  with  a  low  percentage. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  MUNICIPAL  CIVIL-SERVICE  RULES 
OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 

"  Appointments  and  promotions  in  the  Civil  Service  of  The 
City  of  New  York  shall  be  made  according  to  merit  and  fitness, 
to  be  ascertained,  by  examinations  which,  so  far  as  practicable, 
shall  be  competitive. 

"  Every  false  statement  knowingly  made  by  any  person  in  his 
application  for  examination,  and  every  connivance  by  him  at  any 
false  statement  made  in  any  certificate  which  may  accompany 
his  application,  shall  be  regarded  as  good  cause  for  the  removal 
or  discharge  of  such  person. 

"  No  candidate  for  positions  requiring  technical  or  professional 
knowledge  receiving  less  than  75  per  cent  on  the  technical  or 
special  subjects  shall  be  placed  upon  the  eligible  list.  No  applicant 
receiving  0  in  any  one  subject  shall  be  placed  upon  the  eligible 
list. 

"  Every  original  appointment  to  or  employment  in  any  position 
in  the  competitive  class  shall  be  made  for  a  probationary  tenn  cf 
three  months,  and  an  appointing  or  nominating  officer,  in  notifying 


202 


jiAynnooK  on  SAmrATiox. 


a  person  certified  to  him  for  appointment  or  employment,  shall 
specify  the  same  as  for  a  probationary  term  only;  and  if  the 
conduct,  capacity,  and  fitness  of  the  probationer  are  satisfactory 
to  the  appointing  officer,  his  retention  in  the  service,  after  the 
end  of  such  term,  shall  be  equivalent  to  his  permanent  appoint- 
ment; but  if  his  conduct,  capacity,  or  fitness  be  not  satisfactory, 
he  may  be  discharged  at  the  end  of  such  term,  without  regard  to 
the  provisions  of  Rule  42  limiting  the  power  of  removal. 

"  No  person  dismissed  from  the  service  for  delinquency  or  mis- 
conduct shall  be  eligible  to  appointment  in  any  capacity  in  any 
department  of  the  Municipal  service  within  two  j^ears. 

"  To  secure  compliance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Civil  Service 
Law  prohibiting  removals  because  of  political  opinions  or  aflS.lia- 
tions,  no  removal  of  any  person  in  the  classified  service  of  the  City 
of  New  York  shall  be  valid  unless  and  until  a  statement  of  the 
causes  of  such  removal  shall  be  filed  with  the  Municipal  Com« 
mission  and  a  copy  of  the  same  furnished  to  the  person  sought  to 
be  removedj  and  until  such  person  has  been  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity to  present  an  explanation  in  writing." 

Schedule  D  comprises  all  positions  requiring  special 
expert  knowledge,  and  which  are  not  included  in  Sched- 
ule E. 

Schedule  E  comprises  all  positions  calling  for  medical 
service. 

SCHEDULE  D. 

Rule  56.  The  Board  of  Examiners  shall  examine  every  applicant 
eligible  under  these  rules  for  a  position  in  Schedule  D,  and  shall 
give  a  certificate  of  qualification  to  such  person  only  when  satis- 
fied: 

First.  That  he  (or  she)  is  within  the  limits  of  age  prescribed 
for  the  situation  named. 

Second.  That  he  (or  she)  is  free  from  any  physical  defect  or 
disease  likely  to  interfere  with  the  proper  discharge  of  his  (or  her) 
duties. 

Third.  That  his  (or  her)  character  is  such  as  to  qualify  him 
(or  her)  for  such  employment;  and 


CIVIL-SERVICE  EXAMINATIONS. 


203 


Fourth.  That  he  (or  she)  possesses  the  requisite  knowledge  and 
ability  to  enter  upon  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  such  situation 
or  employment. 

The  fourth  article  of  the  certificate  shall  be  determined  by  the 
Examining  Board  from  the  results  of  the  competitive  examina- 
tion of  the  different  persons  applying  for  the  position  to  which 
the  appointment  is  to  be  made.  The  examination  shall  have  refer- 
ence to  the  special  qualifications,  expert  or  otherwise,  required  for 
that  particular  position,  and  shall  be  practical  in  its  character. 

Rule  57 — Part  I.  The  general  examination  for  admission  to  the 
subordinate  places  in  Schedule  D  (being  Part  I.  of  the  classifica- 
tion hereto  annexed)  shall  be  in  writing  and  on  the  following  sub- 
jects: 

1.  Handwriting  (as  shown  in  examination  papers). 

2.  Arithmetic,  viz.:  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and 
division. 

3.  Questions  relating  to  the  technical  knowledge  required  for 
the  position  sought  by  the  applicant. 

4.  Experience  tending  to  qualify  him  for  that  position. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  health  and  physical  vigor  of  the  appli- 
cant shall  be  tested,  as  hereinafter  required. 

The  relative  weight  to  be  given  to  these  several  subjects  in 
making  up  the  average  standing  shall  be  as  follows: 


1.  Handwriting    1 

2.  Arithmetic   1 

3.  Technical  knowledge   6 

4.  Experience  i   2 

Total  of  weights   10 


Rule  57 — Part  II.  No  person  shall  be  admitted  as  a  competitor 
for  appointment  to  any  of  the  superior  positions  in  Schedule  D 
(being  Part  II.  of  the  classification  hereto  annexed),  who  shall 
not  present  to  the  Examining  Board  satisfactory  evidence  that  he 
has  received  a  diploma  or  certificate  from  some  reputable  institu- 
tion showing  that  he  has  pursued  in  such  institution,  with  credit 
for  two  years,  a  course  of  study  adapted  to  qualify  him  for  the 
position  which  he  seeks,  or  for  which  his  appointment  is  desired. 

He  may,  however,  produce  in  lieu  of  such  diploma  or  certificate, 


20-1 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


cerlificatos  from  one  or  more  professional  men  in  gfood  standinfj, 
to  the  effect  that  lie  has  pursued  with  them  or  under  their  direc- 
tion, and  Avith  credit  to  himself,  a  course  of  study  similar  to  that 
before  mentioned  for  the  last  three  years. 

Those  admitted  to  competition  for  the  superior  positions  in 
Schedule  D  shall  be  examined  in  writing  on  the  followinof  subjects : 

1.  The  technical  knowledge  required  for  the  position  to  be  filled, 
and  respecting  which  the  examination  is  held. 

2.  Experience  tending  to  qualify  the  applicant  for  that  position. 

3.  Mathematics. 

4.  Example  of  a  report  on  the  subject. 

The  relative  weight  to  be  given  to  these  several  subjects  shall 
be  as  follows: 

1.  Technical  knowledge  ^   50 

2.  Experience    15 

3.  Mathematics   20 

4.  Report,  etc   15 


Rule  58.  The  general  examination  for  admission  to  places  classi- 
fied in  Schedule  E  shall  be  in  writing  and  on  the  following  sub- 


1.  The  technical  knowledge  required  for  the  position  to  be  filled. 

2.  Experience  tending  to  qualify  the  applicant  for  that  position. 
The  relative  weight  given  to  the  subjects  shall  be  as  follows: 


Total  of  weights 


100 


SCHEDULE  E. 


jeets : 


Technical  knowledge 
Experience   


G 
4 


Total  of  weights 


10 


CHAPTER  VI. 

NOTES  ON  AN  INSPECTION  OF  A  TENEMENT- 
HOUSE. 

A. 


Street   No  

Owner   Address  

Agent   Housekeeper  

Inspection  made  on   Character  of  house. 

Date  inspected   Date  reported  


B. 

Material  of  building   Xo,  of  stories  

No.  of  apartments   Xo.  of  rooms  

No.  of  families   Xo.  of  adults  

No.  of  children  of  2-12  years. . .  Xo.  of  children  under  2  years. . 

C. 

Size  of  lot   Size  of  house  

Size  of  yard   Size  of  air-shafts  

Size  of  halls   Size  of  water-closet  apartments. 

Size  of  main  rooms   Size  of  bedrooms  

Size  of  kitchens   Cellar  

Size  of  windows:  rooms   Halls   

"    "        "        w.e.  apmts.  . .  Cellar  


D.  LIGHT  AND  VENTILATION. 


Halls    Cellar  

Bedrooms    Kitchens  

Main  rooms   W.C.  apartments  

205 


206 


HAXDnoOK  ON"  SANITATION, 


Air-space. 

Main  rooms   Bedrooms   

Apartments   W.C.  apartments. 

How  lighted  at  night. 

Halls    Rooms  

How  heated. 

Halls    Rooms  


E.  PLUMBING. 

House-drain:  Material   Size....  

Location   Position  

How  supported. .  .  Fall  

Joints  of  lengths.  With  soil-  and  waste-pipes. 

With  house-sewer.  Rain-leader  

Main  trap   Fresh-air  inlet  

Soil:  waste:     How  many  lines..  Materials  

Vent-pipes:     Sizes   Location   

Joints   Extension  

Connection  with 

traps   With  house-drain  

Rain-leader:    Material    Location  

Joints    Trapped  


Flvtures. 

Sinks  Xo   Materials  

Enclosed  ?    Backs  

Traps,  kind   Material   

Size   Joint  to  fixture  

Joint  to  main  waste   How  far  from  fixture?, 

Water-closets,  Xo   Type  

Seats   Traps  

Size   INIaterial   

Connection  with  fixture   With  main  soil-pipe.  .  . 

How  flushed?   Capacity  of  cisterns.  . . 

Size  of  flush-pipe   Cisterns  how  far?  

Tank. 

Material   Capacity  

Location    Cover  ^  

Overflow   How  supplied?  


INSPECTION  OF  A  TENEMENT-HOUSE. 


207 


Water-supply. 

Size  of  main  pipe  Material 

Size  of  branches  Material 

Remarks  


F.  CONDITION. 


Yard  flagged,  graded,  drained?  

Fire-escapes   

Air-shafts  

Cellar  floor   Walls  

Ceilings   WindoAvs  

Woodsheds,  etc   Gratings  and  doors 

Any  one  living  in  cellar?   Permit?  

Halls:  Floors   Walls  

Ceilings   Wainscoting  

Roof:  Material    Condition  

Washroof    Eaves  gutter  

Doors   Skylight   

Chimney:       Size    Height  above  roof. 

Material    Condition   

Rooms:  Flooring   General  cleanliness. 

Walls   Ceilings   

W.C.  Apmts.:  Floor  material.  .  .  .  Condition   

Walls   Ceilings  

Windows    Space  under  w.c .  .  . 

Plumbing:      House-drain   Sinks  , 

Soil-pipe    Water-closets  

Waste-pipe   Tank  

Vent-pipe   Water-supply  pipe. 

Rain-leader    Faucets  

Sink  traps   Fresh-air  inlet  

W.  C.  traps  

Remarks  


CHAPTER  VII. 


EXAMPLE  OF  A  EEPORT  OF  AN  I^v^SPECTION  OF 
A  TENEMENT-HOUSE. 

Department  of  of  the  City  of  

Complaint  and  report  of  Inspector  in  reference  to  premises  


I,  John  Jones,  holding  the  position  of  Tenement  Inspector  in  the 

Department  of  of  the  City  of  do  report 

that  on  the  19..  I  personally  examined 

and  carefully  inspected  the  premises  situated  at  

said  premises  consist  of  a  tenement-house  of  18  families  of  which 

Mr  is  owner  and 

responsible;  and  I  herewith  respectfully  submit  tlie  following  re- 
port of  the  conditions  found  which  are  in  my  opinion  dangerous 
to  life  and  detrimental  to  health,  and  are  in  violation  to  the 
tenement-house  law,  viz.: 

That  the  halls  are  not  sufficiently  ventilated,  there  being  no 
windows  to  the  outer  air,  nor  any  ventilators  in  roof  over  halls. 

That  the  2d  floor  hallway  is  dark  during  daytime,  and  that  no 
light  is  kept  burning  at  night  in  the  entrance  and  3d  floor  halls. 

That  the  underground  earthenware  house-drain  in  cellar  is 
defective,  allowing  foul  gases  and  liquids  to  escape  therefrom. 

That  the  joints  of  the  iron  soil-pipes  on  2d  floor  are  defective, 
the  connection  of  the  main  soil-pipe  with  the  branch  soil-pipe  from 
3d  floor  water-closet  is  made  by  a  cement  joint  and  is  defective,  al- 
lowing foul  gases  to  escape  therefrom. 

That  foul  gases  escape  from  the  holes  in  the  lead  traps  of  sink 
on  1st  floor  apartment  No.  3,  of  wash-tub  in  apartment  G,  of  bath- 
tub in  apartment  12;  from  the  holes  in  the  iron  main  Avaste-pipe 

208 


INSPECTION  OF  A  TENEMENT-HOUSE.  209 


in  cellar,  and  from  tlie  defective  connection  of  the  lead  trap  of  smk 
in  apartment  Xo.  18  with  the  main  iron  waste-pipe  tliereat. 

That  the  long-liopper  closets  in  the  halls  are  old,  corroded,  and 
cannot  be  properly  cleaned. 

That  the  waste-pipe  from  the  refrigerator  in  the  store  on  ground 
floor  is  connected  with  the  house-drain,  allowing  toul  gases  to 
enter  refrigerator  from  house-drain. 

That  the  yard  and  the  air-shafts  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of 
the  house  are  not  paved,  nor  graded  and  drained,  allowing  sur- 
face water  to  stagnate  thereon. 

That  the  rear  fire-escape  on  .3d  floor  is  obstructed  with  bed- 
ding, etc. 

That  the  cellar  is  not  cemented  and  is  damp. 
That  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  cellar  are  dirty  and  offensive. 
That  the  floors,  the  wainscoting,  and  the  painted  walls  and 
whitewashed  ceilings  of  halls  are  dirty  and  offensive. 
That  the  roof  leaks,  causing  dampness. 

That  the  chimnej'  is  defective,  allowing  coal-gas  and  smoke  to 
enter  rooms. 

That  the  paper  on  walls  and  ceilings  of  apartments  Xos.  1,  2,  4, 
8,  9,  14,  16,  and  18  is  dirty  and  offensive. 

That  the  tank  on  roof  is  not  properly  covered,  and  the  tank 
dirty  with  sediments  of  dirt,  etc. 

That  there  is  no  housekeeper  residing  on  premises. 

/  herewith  respectfully  recommend 

That  a  ventilating  skylight  be  provided  in  roof  over  the  stair- 
well in  the  hall,  said  skylight  shall  have  both  ridge  ventilators 
and  fixed  louvers,  the  glazed  surface  thereof  to  be  not  less  than 
25  square  feet  in  area. 

That  a  liglit  be  kept  burning  in  the  2d  floor  hallway  from  8 
A.M.  till  10  P.M.,  and  on  all  other  floors  from  sunset  till  10  p.m., 
and  in  the  entrance  hall  and  the  3d  floor  from  sunset  till  sunrise 
every  night  throughout  the  year. 

That  the  defective  earthenware  house-drain  be  removed,  its  site 
cleaned  and  disinfected,  and  filled  in  with  fresh  earth,  and  re- 
placed by  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe,  at  least  6  inches  in  diameter, 
with  all  joints  properly  lead-calked,  and  connected  with  the  house- 
sewer  by  a  gas-tight  joint;  and  the  main  iron  soil,  waste  and  rain- 


210 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


leader  pipes  to  be  connected  with  said  house-drain  with  proper 
joints  gas-tight;  and  that  said  house-dram  be  provided  with  a 
fresh-air  inlet  of  similar  material,  at  least  4  inches  in  diameter, 
and  with  running  trap,  placed  near  the  front  wall  of  building, 
provided  with  proper  handholes  and  trap  screw-ferrules. 

That  the  defective  joints  of  the  iron  soil-pipe  on  2d  floor  be 
vecalked  gas-tight,  and  the  connection  of  the  lead  branch  soil-pipe 
of  the  water-closet  with  the  main  soil-pipe  thereat  be  made  by  a 
brass  ferrule,  lead-wiped  and  calked. 

That  the  holes  in  the  lead  traps  of  sink  in  apartment  No.  3,  of 
wash-tub  in  apartment  6,  of  bath-tub  in  apartment  12,  be  soldered 
gas-tight,  the  holes  in  the  main  iron  waste-pipe  in  cellar  be  closed 
with  iron  bands,  gas-tight,  and  the  connection  of  the  lead  trap  of 
sink  in  apartment  No.  10  main  iron  waste-pipe  be  made  by 

means  of  a  brass  feiTule  properly  lead-wiped  and  calked. 

That  the  old,  corroded,  and  defective  long-hopper  water-closets 
in  the  halls  be  removed,  and  replaced  by  new  earthenware,  flush- 
rim  washout  water-closets  flushed  from  a  proper  metal-lined 
flushing  cistern  properly  adjusted  over  the  same  with  a  flush- 
pipe  of  l:|-inch  diameter. 

That  the  waste-pipe  from  the  refrigerator  in  the  store  on  ground 
floor  be  disconnected  from  the  house-drain,  the  opening  at  discon- 
nection closed  gas-tight,  and  said  waste-pipe  made  to  discharge 
into  a  properly-trapped,  sewer-connected,  water-supplied,  open 
sink. 

That  the  air-shafts  on  east  and  west  sides  and  the  yard  be 
properly  flagged  or  cemented,  and  so  graded  as  to  discharge  all 
surface-water  into  properly- trapped,  sewer-connected  drains. 

That  all  obstructions  be  removed  from  the  rear  fire-escape  on  3d 
floor. 

That  the  floor  of  cellar  be  properly  cemented  and  made  imper- 
vious to  dampness. 

That  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  cellar  be  cleaned  and  white- 
washed. 

That  the  wooden  flooring  and  wainscoting,  and  the  painted 
walls  of  halls,  be  thoroughly  scrubbed  and  cleaned,  and  their  ceil- 
ings whitewashed. 

That  the  roof  be  .  repaired  so  as  not  to  leak. 

That  all  defects  in  the  chimney  be  repaired,  and  the  nuisance 
caused  by  smoke  and  coal-gas  from  it  entering  living  rooms  be 
abated. 


INSPECTION  OF  A  TENEMENT  HOUSE. 


211 


That  all  the  dirty  paper  be  removed  from  the  walls  and  ceil- 
ings of  apartments  Nos.  1,  2,  4,  8,  9,  14,  16,  and  18,  and  said  walls 
and  ceilings  be  either  repapered  or  painted. 

That  the  tank  on  roof  be  emptied,  cleaned  of  all  deposits  and 
sediments,  scrubbed  and  provided  with  a  properly-fitting  air- 
tight cover. 

That  a  housekeeper  be  engaged  to  reside  on  premises. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

John  Jones, 
Tenement-Jwuse  Inspector. 


CHAPTEK  VIII. 


CALCULATION  OF  AKEAS  AND  CUBIC  SPACE. 

In  investigating  overcrowding  of  lodging-houses 
or  tenements,  it  is  often  necessary  to  find  out  the  cubic 
space  of  rooms  in  order  to  show  how  many  people  may 
inhabit  them.  The  following  rules  will  be  helpful  for 
this  purpose  : 

The  floor-space  of  a  room  is  the  mdth  of  the  room 
multiplied  by  its  length. 

The  cubic  space  of  a  square  or  rectangular  room  is 
the  width  multiplied  by  the  length,  and  the  result  again 
multiplied  by  the  height. 

The  area  of  a  triangle  will  be  the  base  multiplied  by 
^2  the  height,  or  the  height  multiplied  by  -J  the  base. 

The  cubic  space  of  a  iriaugle  equals  the  area  of  the 
section  multiplied  by  its  depth. 

The  area  of  a  circle  equals  the  square  of  the  diam- 
eter multiplied  by  0.7854. 

The  cubic  capacity  of  a  sphere  equals  the  cube  of  the 
diameter  multiplied  by  .5236. 

Projections  of  chimneys,  furniture,  etc.,  must  be  de- 
ducted from  the  cubic  space  of  the  room. 

A  grown  person  occupies  about  3  cubic  feet  of  space. 


CALCULATION  OF  AREAS  AND  CUBIC  SPACE.  213 


The  minimum  of  air-space  in  a  lodging-house  for  each 
individual  is  400  cubic  feet. 

The  minimum  of  air-space  in  a  workshop  for  each  in- 
dividual is  250  cubic  feet. 

The  minimum  of  air-space  in  a  tenement-house  for 
each  individual  is  600  cubic  feet. 

The  following  reprint  on  the  calculation  of  areas  is 
taken  from  the    Sanitary  Ivecord  Diary  for  1901.'' 


TRIANGLE. 

Area  =  Half  the  product  of  base  and 
height. 

This  may  be  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  base  by  the  height  and  halving  the 
product,  or  by  multiplying  the  base  by 
half  the  height  or  the  height  by  half  the 
base. 


QUADRILATERAL  OF  FOUR-SIDED  FIGURES. 


Rectangle  and  square  (in  both  of  which 
all  angles  are  square). 

Area  =  The  length  multiplied  by  the 
breadth. 


Rhombus  or  rTiomboid  (in  which 
the  opposite  sides  are  parallel). 

Area  =  The  base  multiplied  by  the 
perpendicular  height. 


Trapezoid  (in  which  two  sides  only  are 
parallel) . 

Area  =  The  mean  length  of  the  parallel 
sides  multiplied  by  the  perpendicular  dis- 
tance  between  theua, 


214 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


Trapezium  (which  has  none  of  its  sides 
parallel). 

Area  =  Half  the  sum  of  the  perpen- 
diculars multiplied  by  the  diagonal  on 
Avhich  they  fall. 

POLYGONS. 


Irregular  polyyons  may  be  divided  into 
(   or  ) 

triangles  -j  ^^^^^^  >  trapeziums  and  the  areas 
found  by  the  foregoing  rules. 


Regular  polygons.  Area  =  The  sum  of  the 
sides  (perimeter)  multiplied  by  half  the  per- 
pendicular (drawn  from  the  centre  to  the  mid- 
dle point  of  any  side)  or  lialf  the  perimeter 
multiplied  by  the  perpendicular,  or  square  the 
length  of  one  side  and  multiply  by — 

1*72  if  pentagon  (5-sided) 
2-598  if  hexagon  (0-sided) 
3 '634  if  heptagon  (7-sided) 
4-828  if  octagon  (8-sided) 
6-182  if  nonagon  (9-sided) 
7 '694  if  decagon  (10-sided) 


ELLIPSE. 


Area  =  The  long  and  short  diameters  multi- 
plied together  and  the  result  multiplied  by 
.7854. 

CIRCLE. 


Area  =  Square  of  diameter  multiplied  by 
•7854.  or  square  of  radius  multiplied  by 
3.1416. 

Note. — The  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  that 
of  a  triangle  whose  base  and  altitude  are  equal 
to  the  circle's  circumference  and  radius. 


""6Ia  meter' 


CALCULATION  OF  AREAS  AM)  CUBIC  SPACE,  215 


SEG]VIEXT  OF  A  CIRCLE. 

Area  =  The  cube   of   the   height  divided 
by  twice  the  length  of  the  chord  added  to 
two-thirds    of   the   product   of   chord  and 
height,  or  the  area  of  the  sector  which  has 
\  -    /'      the  same  arc^  less  the  area  of  the  triangle 

\  /       formed  by  the  radii  and  the  chord. 

Note. — When  the  segment  is  greater  than 
a  semicircle,  find  the  area  of  the  circle  and  deduct  the  area  of 
the  smaller  segment. 

SECTOR  OF  A  CIRCLE. 


Area  =  Half  the  product  of  the  arc  multi- 
plied by  the  radius,  or  length  of  arc  multi- 
plied by  half  the  radius,  or  the  number  of 
degrees  in  the  arc  multiplied  by  the  area  of 
the  circle  and  divided  by  360. 


CURVILINEAL  FIGURES. 

Area  =  The  first  ordinate  +  the  last 
ordinate  +  twice  the  sum  of  all  other  odd 
ordinates  +  four  times  the  sum  of  all  even 
ordinates,  multiplied  by  one-third  of  the 
distance  between  two  adjacent  ordinates. 

Note. — The  ordinates  should  be  drawn 
equidistant  and  the  divisions  made  even 
in  number.    In  the  figure  a  A  is  the  first 
ordinate,  g  G  the  last,  &  B,  d  D,  and  f  F  the  even,  and  c  C  and 
€  E  the  odd  ordinates. 


A    B    C    D    E    F  G 


IRREGULAR  FIGURES. 

Area  =  The  mean  of  the  extreme  or- 
dinates added  to  the  sum  of  the  inter- 
mediate ones  and  multiplied  by  the  whole 
length  of  the  figure  divided  by  the  num- 
ber of  ordinates  less  one. 

Note. — The  areas  of  other  irregular 
figures  may  be  ascertained  by  dividing  the 

latter  into  squares,  triangles,  and  segments,  finding  the  areas  of 
each  of  these  separately,  and  then  adding  them  together. 


216 


HANDBOOK  ON  JSANITATION. 


CUJ3IC  SPACE. 

Cubic  space  or  contents  is  arrived  at  by  multiplying  the  area 
of  the  base  by  the  perpendicular  height  wlien  the  latter  is  uniform 
over  the  whole  area.  If  the  contrary  be  the  case,  the  mean,  or 
average,  height  must  be  ascertained  and  the  area  multiplied  by  it. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


USEFUL  INFOKMATION  FOR  SANITARY  EN- 

GINEERS  AND  INSPECTORS. 

(Compiled  by  Gerard  J.  G.  Jensen,  C.E.) 

Reprinted  from  the  "  Sanitary  Record  Diarj'  for  1901.'" 

Ill  the  following  tables  the  British  gallon  is  given.  The  same  tables  in 
American  measure  are  printed  on  page  220a  et  seq. 

HYDRO-MEMS,  ETC. 

r  62.425  lb. 

1  cub.  ft.  of  _  J  0.557  cwt. 

fresh  water  ~  ]  0.028  ton 

t  6.2355  gals. 

1  cub.  in.  of  _   i    0.03612  lb. 
fresh  water  ~   (    0.003607  gals 


TABLE  OF  PRESSUKE  AND  THEORETICAL  VELOCITY  OP 
WATER  UNDER  VARIOUS  HEADS. 


Head  of 

Pressure 

Velocity 

Head  of 

Pressure 

Velocity 

water 

in  lb.  per 

in  feet  per 

water 

in  lb.  per 

in  feet  per 

in  ft. 

sq.  in. 

second. 

in  ft. 

sq.  in. 

second. 

1 

0.4335 

8.025 

17 

7.369 

33.088 

2 

0.867 

11.349 

18 

7.803 

34.047 

3 

1.30 

13.90 

19 

8.236 

34.98 

4 

1.734 

16.05 

20 

8.670 

35.889 

5 

2.1675 

17.945 

25 

10.837 

40.125 

6 

2.601 

19.657 

30 

13.005 

43.954 

7 

3.034 

21.232 

35 

15.172 

47.476 

8 

3.468 

22.698 

40 

17.340 

50.755 

9 

3.901 

24.075 

45 

19.507 

53.833 

10 

4.335 

25.377 

50 

21.675 

56.745 

11 

4.768 

26.615 

55 

23.842 

59.515 

12 

5.202 

27.799 

60 

26.010 

62.161 

13 

5  635 

28.935 

70 

30.345 

67.142 

14 

6.069 

30.027 

80 

34.680 

71.778 

15 

6.502 

31.081 

90 

39.015 

76.181 

16 

6.936 

32.10 

100 

43.350 

80.25 

217 


1  gallon 


1  cwt.  = 


1  ton 


10  lb. 

0.16  cub.  ft. 
276.48  cub.  in. 
1.8  cub.  ft. 
11.2  gals. 
35.84  cub.  ft. 
224  gals. 


218 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


DRAINAGE. 

The  velocity  of  the  tiow  in  drains  should  be  from  3  ft.  to  4.5  ft. 
per  second. 

An  easy  rule  for  determining  the  proper  inclination  at  which 
drains  should  be  laid  is  to  multiply  the  diameter  of  the  drain  (in 
inches)  by  10.  The  result  will  be  the  number  of  feet  in  which  the 
drain  should  fall  1  ft.;  thus, 

4  in.  =  1  in  40.  6  in.  =1  in  60. 


TABLE  OF  FALL  NECESSARY  TO  OBTAIN  CERTAIN 
VELOCITIES  (IN  FEET  PER  SECOND)  IN  DRAINS 
RUNNING  FULL  OR  HALF  FULL. 


Dia.  of 
drain  in 
inches. 

V  =  2.5. 

00 

II 

»o 

CO 

II 

II 

^ 

V  =  4.5, 

II 

11 

II 

1  in 

1  in 

1  in 

1  in 

1  in 

1  in 

1  in 

1  in 

4 

129 

92 

68 

53 

42 

34 

29 

24 

5 

161 

115 

85 

66 

52 

42 

36 

30 

6 

193 

137 

102 

80 

62 

51 

43 

36 

9 

290 

206 

154 

119 

95 

77 

65 

54 

12 

386 

275 

205 

159 

127 

103 

86 

72 

RELATIVE  DISCHARGING  P0V7ER  OF  PIPES. 
(When  the  fall  and  the  length  of  the  pipes  remain  constant,  the  dis- 
charge varies  as  the  square  root  of  the  fifth  power  of  the  diameter, 


or  as  d^'^). 

Diameter  of  pipe,  d'** 

2^   9.88 

3   15.59 

4  ,   32.0 

5   55.9 

6   88.18 

9    243.0 

12    498,8 

15   871.4 

18   1375.0 

24   2822.0 

30   4930.0 

36   7776.0 


USEFUL  INFOmfATION. 


219 


TABLE  OF  COXTEXTS  OF  \\'ELLS  IN  GALLONS. 


Diameter  Contents 
of  Well.  in  gals,  per  ft. 

ft.     in.  of  Depth. 

2  6   80.62 

3  0   44.10 

3  6   60.02 

4  0     78.40 

4  6   99.32 

5  0   122.50 

5  6   148.22 

6  0   176.40 


CAPACITY  AND  USUAL  PROPORTIONS  OF  CISTERNS. 


Contents. 

Length. 

Width. 

Depth. 

Contents. 

Length. 

Width. 

Depth. 

Gals. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Gals. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.  In. 

20 

1 

10 

1 

4 

1 

4 

150 

3 

6 

2 

7 

2  8 

25 

2 

0 

1 

5 

1 

5 

175 

3 

8 

2 

9 

2  9 

30 

2 

0 

1 

6 

1 

7 

200 

3 

10 

2 

11 

2  11 

40 

2 

3 

1 

8 

1 

8 

250 

4 

2 

3 

3 

3  0 

50 

2 

5 

1 

10 

1 

10 

300 

4 

6 

3 

7 

3  0 

60 

2 

6 

1 

11 

2 

0 

350 

5 

6 

3 

6 

3  0 

70 

2 

8 

2 

2 

2 

0 

400 

6 

0 

3 

6 

3  2 

80 

2 

10 

2 

3 

2 

0  1 

500 

6 

6 

3 

8 

3  6 

90 

3 

0 

2 

5 

2 

0 

600 

7 

0 

4 

0 

3  6 

100 

3 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

800 

8 

1 

4 

7 

3  7 

125 

3 

4 

2 

7 

2 

4 

1000 

9 

1 

5 

1 

3  7 

FORMULA  FOR  CALCULATING  THE  CAPACITY  OF 
DRAIN  AND  OTHER  CYLINDRICAL  PIPES. 

D  =  Diameter  of  pipe  in  inches. 
A  =  Area  of  pipe  in  square  inches. 
L  =  Contents  per  foot  of  pipe  in  lb. 
F=      "        "  "       cub.  ft. 

G  =      "        «'     '<        <<  gallons. 

i  =  i).X.34  L  =  A.. 

F=      X  .00544  G  =D^  X  .034. 


220 


HANDBOOK  OK  SANITATION. 


TABLE  OF  \T:L0C1TY  (IX  FEET  PER  MINUTE)  AND  DIS- 
CHARGE (IN  GALLONS  PER  MINUTE)  OF  DRAINS, 
WITH  VARIOUS  FALLS,  WEN  RUNNING  FULL. 


Diameter. 

4  Inches. 

5  Inches. 

6  Inches. 

'Coll 

rail. 

Velocity 

Discharge. 

Velocity 

Discharge. 

Velocity 

Discharge. 

1  in  20 

395 

214.90 

441 

375.40 

481 

589.18 

1  in  25 

353 

192.07 

395 

335.52 

432 

529.15 

lin  30 

322 

175.21 

360 

306.07 

395 

483*84 

1  in  35 

298 

162.18 

333 

283.31 

366 

448.34 

1  in  40 

278 

151.25 

311 

264.21 

342 

418.95 

1  in  45 

261 

142.02 

291 

248.09 

322 

394.43 

1  in  50 

246 

134.04 

278 

234.15 

307 

375.46 

1  in  60 

226 

123.11 

253 

215.06 

279 

341.20 

1  in  70 

209 

113.88 

234 

198.93 

257 

314.31 

1  in  80 

194 

105.71 

217 

184.66 

239 

292.28 

1  in  90 

182 

99.15  1 

203 

173.20 

225 

275.18 

1  in  100 

172 

93.72 

192 

163.71 

213 

260.52 

Diameter. 

9  Inches. 

12  Inches. 

Fall. 

Velocity. 

Discharge. 

Velocity. 

Discharge. 

1  in  20 

582 

1604.30 

664 

3254.16 

1  in  25 

525 

1447.60 

600 

2940.28 

1  in  30 

481 

1326.00 

551 

2700.67 

lin  35 

446 

1229.30 

513 

2514.09 

lin  40 

418 

1152.53 

481 

2357.47 

1  in  45 

395 

1088.80 

454 

2225.19 

lin  50 

375 

1033.90 

432 

2115.98 

T  in  60 

343 

945.98 

395 

1935.03 

1  in  70 

317 

874.22 

366 

1792.75 

lin  80 

296 

816.19 

342 

1675.44 

1  in  90 

279 

769.39 

322 

1577.47 

1  in  100 

264 

728.21 

306 

1498.85 

USEFUL  INFORMATION  FOR  SANITARY 
ENGINEERS  AND  INSPECTORS. 


1  cub.  ft.  of 

fresh  water 

at  62°  F. 
1  cub.  in.  of 
fresh  water 


(Compiled  by  William  Kent,  M.E.) 
WEIGHT  OF  WATER. 


62.3551b. 
0.03118  net  ton 
7.4805  gals, 
j  0.0360851b. 
I   0.004329  gal. 


1  U.  S.  gal.  = 

1  net  ton  _ 
(2000  lb.)  - 


8.336  lb. 

0.13368  cub.  ft. 
231  cub.  in. 

32.074  cab.  ft. 
239.93  gals. 


TABLE  OF  PRESSURE  AND  THEORETICAL  VELOCITY  OF 
WATER  UNDER  VARIOUS  HEADS. 


Head  of 
water 
fi. 

Pressure 
in  lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Velocity 
in  feet  per 
second. 

Head  of 
water 
in  ft. 

Pressure 
in  lb.  per 
sq.  in. 

Velocity 
in  feet  per 
second. 

1 

0.433 

8.02 

17 

7.361 

33.1 

2 

0.866 

11.4 

18 

7.794 

34.0 

3 

1.299 

13  9 

19 

8.227 

35.0 

4 

1.732 

16.0 

20 

8.660 

35.9 

5 

2.165 

17.9 

25 

10.825 

40.1 

6 

2.598 

19.7 

30 

12.990 

43.9 

7 

3.03 

21.2 

35 

15  155 

47.4 

8 

3.464 

22.7 

40 

17.320 

50.7 

9 

3  897 

24.1 

45 

19.485 

53.8 

10 

4.380 

25.4 

50 

21.650 

56.7 

11 

4.763 

26.6 

55 

23.815 

59.5 

12 

5.196 

27.8 

60 

25.980 

62.1 

13 

5.629 

28.9 

70 

30.310 

67.1 

14 

6.062 

30.0 

80 

34.640 

71.8 

15 

6.495 

31.1 

90 

38.970 

76.1 

16 

6.928 

32.1 

1 

100 

43.330 

80.2 

220a 


'220b 


HANDBOOK  OF  SANITATION. 


CONTENTS  OF  WELLS  IN  U.  S.  GALLONS. 
Diameter  Contents 


of  Well.  in  ^als.  per  ft. 


ft. 

in. 

of  depth. 

2 

6  

3 

0  

  52.88 

3 

6  

4 

0  

4 

6  

5 

0  

5 

6    

6 

0  

  211.51 

CAPACITY  OF  RECTANGULAR  CISTERNS. 


Length 
in  feet. 

Width 
in  feet. 

Depth 
in  feet. 

u.  s. 

Gallons. 

Length 
in  feet. 

Width 
in  feet. 

Depth 
in  feet. 

U.  S. 

Gallons 

2 

1 

1 

14.96 

5 

21 

H 

233.8 

2 

^ 

33.66 

5 

3' 

n 

280.5 

n 

ll 

42.08 

5 

3 

3 

336.6 

2 

n 

56.10 

5 

4 

3 

448.8 

2? 

n 

2~ 

74.80 

5 

4 

4 

598.4 

3^ 

n 

n 
n 

50.49 

6 

3 

3 

403.9 

3 

2 

67.32 

6 

3i 

31 

550.5 

3 

2 

2 

89.76 

6 

4 

4 

718.1 

4 

2 

2 

119.7 

7 

f 

31 

641.4 

4 

2h 

187.0 

7 

4" 

837.8 

4 

3 

2 

179.5 

7 

5 

5 

1309 

4 

3 

2i 

224.4 

8 

5 

5 

1496 

FORMULA  FOR  CALCULATING  THE  CAPACITY  OF 
DRAIN  AND  OTHER  CYLINDRICAL  PIPES. 

D  —  Diameter  of  pipe  in  inches. 

A  =  Area  of  pipe  in  square  inches. 

L  =  Contents  per  foot  of  pipe  in  lbs. 

F  =        "       "      "    "    "    "  cub.  ft. 

O  =        "       "      "         "    "  gallons. 

L  =       X  0.34  Lr=  Ax  0.433. 

F  =      X  0.005454         G  =  D'X  0.408  (U.  S.  gals.). 


USEFUL  INFORMATION. 


TABLE  OF  VELOCITY  (IN  FEET  PER  MINUTE)  AND  DIS- 
CHARGE  (IN  GALLONS  PER  MINUTE)  OF  DRAINS 
WITH  VARIOUS  FALLS  WHEN  RUNNING  FULL. 


Diameter. 

4  Inches. 

5  Inches. 

6  Inches. 

Fall. 

Velocitj' 

Discharge. 

Velocity 

Discharge. 

Velocity 

Discharge 



1  in  20 

oao 

450.48 

481 

707 . 02 

1  in  25 

353 

230.49 

395 

402162 

432 

634.98 

1  in  30 

822 

210.25 

360 

367.28 

395 

580.61 

1  in  35 

298 

194.62 

333 

339.97 

366 

538.01 

1  in  40 

278 

181.50 

311 

317.05 

342 

502.74 

1  in  45 

261 

170.42 

291 

297.71 

322 

473.32 

1  in  50 

246 

160.85 

278 

280.98 

307 

450.55 

1  in  60 

226 

147.73 

253 

258.07 

279 

409.44 

1  in  70 

209 

136.66 

234 

238.72 

257 

377.17 

1  in  80 

194 

126.85 

217 

221.59 

239 

350.74 

1  in  90 

182 

118.98 

203 

207.84 

225 

330.22 

1  in  100 

172 

112.46 

192 

196.45 

213 

312.62 

Diameter. 

9  Inches. 

12  Inches. 

Fall. 

Velocity. 

Discharge. 

Velocity. 

Discharge. 

1  in  20 

582 

1925.16 

664 

3904.97 

1  in  25 

525 

1737.12 

600 

3528.34 

1  in  30 

481 

1591.20 

551 

3240.80 

1  in  35 

446 

1475.16 

513 

3016.91 

1  in  40 

418 

1382.04 

481 

2828.96 

1  in  45 

395 

1306.56 

454 

2670.23 

1  in  50 

375 

1240.68 

432 

2539.18 

1  in  60 

343 

1135.18 

395 

2322.04 

1  in  70 

317 

1049.06 

366 

2151.30 

1  in  80 

296 

979.43 

342 

2010.53 

1  in  90 

279 

923.27 

322 

1892.96 

1  in  100 

264 

873.85 

306 

1798.52 

PART  FOUR. 
SANITARY  LAW. 


CHAPTER  I. 

SANITARY  LAW. 

"  The  broad  general  principle  upon  which  all  modern  sanitary 
legislation  rests  is  that  every  member  of  the  community  is  en- 
titled to  protection  in  regard  to  his  health,  just  as  he  is  in  regard 
to  his  liberty  and  property,  and  that  on  the  other  hand  his  liberty 
and  his  control  of  his  property  are  only  guaranteed  to  him  on 
the  condition  that  they  shall  be  so  exercised  as  not  to  interfere 
with  tlie  similar  rights  of  others,  nor  be  injurious  to  the  com- 
munity at  large." — Dr.  J.  S.  Billings  in  his  introduction  to 
Buck's    Hygiene  and  Public  Health." 

Sanitaky  law  is  based  upon  the  police  power  of  the 
State.  Sanitary  supervision  is  one  of  the  essential  func- 
tions of  organized  society.  The  very  existence  of  so- 
ciety depends  upon  the  prevention  of  disease  and  the 
preservation  of  the  health  of  its  members,  and  as  this 
cannot  possibly  be  attained  by  the  efforts  of  the  individ- 
ual alone,  it  follows  that  it  is  the  duty  and  province  of 
the  social  organization,  or  the  State,  to  guard  the  health 

231 


222 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


of  the  community  bv  legislative  enactments  and  general 
sanitary  supervision. 

Through  ignorance,  indolence,  egotism,  criminal  neg- 
ligence, or  indifference  to  the  rights  and  health  of 
others, individuals  may  commit  such  acts,  or  let  such  acts 
be  committed  and  such  conditions  prevail  as  may  be- 
come a  public  nuisance,  detrimental  to  the  health  and 
dangerous  to  the  lives  of  their  fellow  men;  it  is  then 
the  right  and  duty  of  the  State  to  step  in  and  compel 
general  obedience  to  the  laws  for  the  prevention  of  pub- 
lic nuisances  and  dangers  to  the  public  health. 

Moreover,  there  are  certain  phases  of  social  life  that 
are  the  offspring  of  communal  organization,  such  as 
the  drainage  of  unhealthy  areas,  the  water-supply  of 
urban  populations,  the  quarantine  against  infectious  dis- 
eases, etc.,  which  naturally  come  under  the  general  sani- 
tary control  of  the  State,  and  which  demand  certain 
legislation  for  their  supervision. 

Hence,  sanitary  law  is  as  old  as  society,  and  sanitary 
legislation  can  be  traced  back  to  the  dawn  of  history,  far 
back  into  the  remotest  times  of  antiquity,  as  We  can  see 
from  the  wise  sanitary  legislation  of  Moses,  Solon,  and 
Licurgus  and  of  the  great  Roman  sanitarians. 

The  essential  difference,  however,  between  the  sani- 
tary laws  of  those  great  law-givers  and  the  legislation  of 
to-day,  is  that  the  laws  of  the  ancient  legislators  were 
but  compulsory  enactments  of  individuals,  or  small 
parts  of  the  community,  while  the  laws  of  to-day  are 
based  upon  the  scientific  knowledge  wdiich  is  the  prop- 
erty of  all,  and  upon  the  general  consent  of  all  the  peo- 
ple, whose  direct  representatives  the  legislators  are. 


SANITAnr  LAW. 


223 


Especially  is  this  tlie  case  in  the  United  Stales,  witli  its  ; 
enlightened  representative  goyernment;  here  sanitary 

law  trnly  rests  upon  the  soundest  foundation,  that  of  j 
the  general  welfare  of  the  whole  people. 

Owing  to  the  State  organization  of  the  United  States,  | 

there  is  no  uniformity  in  sanitary  legislation  as  there  is  ! 

on  the  Continent,  or  in  England;  and  we  have  here  Eed-  I 
eral,  State,  County  and  Municipal  sanitary  laws,  at 

times  one  conflicting  with  another.  \ 

With  the  establishment  of  boards  of  health  in  every  I 

State  of  the  Union,  great  progress  has  been  made  toward  ' 
a  uniformity  in  sanitary  legislation  and  organization, 

and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  establishment  of  a  national  | 

board  of  health  will,  in  the  near  future,  culminate  in  the  ' 

enactment  of  a  general,  uniform  and  all-embracing  , 

national  sanitary  law.  | 


CHAPTEE  II. 


SANITARY  ORGANIZATION. 

There  are  three  forms  of  sanitary  organization  in 
the  United  States;  State,  County,  and  Municipal. 

All  the  States  of  the  Union,  except  Georgia,  Idaho, 
Montana,  Oregon,  and  Wyoming,  have  State  organiza- 
tions in  sanitary  matters,  in  the  form  of  State  boards  of 
health.  (Chapin.)  The  following  States  were  the  first 
to  establish  State  boards  of  health:  Louisiana  in  1855; 
Massachusetts  in  1869;  California  in  1870.  (S.  W. 
Abbott.) 

The  following  States  have  county  sanitary  organiza- 
tions :  Alabama,  California,  Colorado,  Connecticut, 
Delaware,  Idaho,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Kansas,  Louisi- 
ana, Maryland,  Mississippi,  Montana,  North  Carolina, 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Utah, 
Virginia,  Washington,  "West  Virginia,  and  Wyoming. 
(Chapin.) 

Most  to^ms,  cities,  and  municipalities  in  the  Union 
are  empowered  by  the  States  to  have  some  form  of  sani- 
tary organization,  usually  a  board  of  health  having  com- 
plete supervision  over  all  sanitary  matters  in  the  local- 
ity. As  a  rule,  the  municipal  boards  of  health  are  inde- 
pendent of  any  State  interference,  although  they  get 

224 


SANITARY  ORGANIZATION. 


225 


their  powers  from  the  State.  The  State  boards  of  health 
have,  as  a  rule,  an  advisory  function,  their  executive 
function,  if  they  have  any,  being  limited  to  supervision 
of  river  pollution,  food  adulteration^  dairy  products,  etc. 

The  local  municipal  boards  of  health  have,  not 
only  executive  powers,  but  under  the  laws  of  the 
State,  or  by  special  charters,  these  boards  of  health  have 
also  legislative  powers.  The  result  of  the  legislative 
powers  being  delegated  by  the  State  to  municipal  boards 
of  health  is  seen  in  the  various  sanitary  codes  of  the 
municipalities,  some  of  these  being  extensive  and  far- 
reaching. 

The  sanitary  matters  which  come  directly  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  municipal  boards  of  health  are  as 
follows  :  Water-supply,  sewerage,  street-cleaning, 
building  and  construction,  plumbing,  local  and  specific 
nuisances,  supervision  of  foods,  meat,  milk,  etc.;  control 
of  infectious  diseases;  school,  factory,  tenement-house 
and  other  inspections.  In  large  cities  the  enumerated 
sanitary  divisions  are  separated  and  given  into  the  con- 
trol of  other  departments  than  the  boards  of  health 
proper.  Thus,  in  ^New  York  City,  owing  to  the  vast 
proportion  of  the  municipality  and  the  complexity  of 
sanitary  work,  there  are  special  municipal  departments 
on  water-supply,  sewers,  buildings,  tenement-houses, 
etc. 

The  organization  of  a  special  department  having 
charge  of  tenement-houses  exclusively  is  a  new  depart- 
ure in  sanitary  organization,  and  is  due  to  the  special 
conditions  prevailing  in  New  York  City,  with  its  45,000 
tenement-houses. 


226 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


Sanitary  legislation  in  New  York  is  in  many  respects 
far  in  advance  of  that  in  other  cities,  many  of  the  sani- 
tary laws  of  New  York  serving  as  models  for  other 
municipalities. 

The  following  extracts,  therefore,  from  the  "  Tene- 
ment-house Law,"  the  organization  of  the  Tenement- 
house  Departments,"  the  Plumbing  Regulations,"  as 
well  as  the  practice  on  Disinfection,"  "  Milk  and 
School  Inspection,"  will  be  of  interest  to  students  in 
Sanitation. 


I. 

TENEMENT-HOUSE  LAW. 

ENACTED  BY  THE  LEGISLATURE  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK,  1901. 
Chapter  334  of  the  Laws  of  the  State  of  New  York  for  I90I. 

CHAPTEK  I. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Sec.  1.  Short  title  and  application.  This  act  may  be  cited  as 
the  Tenement-house  Act,  and  its  provisions  shall  apply  to  cities 
of  the  first-class. 

Sec.  2.  Definitions.  Certain  words  used  in  this  act  are  defined 
for  the  purposes  thereof  as  follows: 

(1)  A  tenement-house  is  any  house  or  building,  or  portion 
thereof,  which  is  rented,  leased,  let  or  hired  out,  to  be  occupied, 
or  is  occupied  as  the  home  or  residence  of  three  families  or  more 
living  independently  of  each  other,  and  doing  their  cooking  upon 
the  premises,  or  by  more  than  two  families  upon  any  floor,  so 
living  and  cooking,  but  having  a  common  right  in  the  halls,  stair- 
ways, yards,  water-closets  or  privies,  or  some  of  them. 

(2)  A  yard  is  an  open  unoccupied  space  on  the  same  lot  with  a 
tenement-house,  between  the  extreme  rear  line  of  the  house  and 
the  rear  line  of  the  lot. 

(3)  A  court  is  an  open  unoccupied  space,  other  than  a  yard,  on 
the  same  lot  with  a  tenement-house.  A  court  not  extending  to 
the  street  or  yard  is  an  inner  court.  A  court  extending  to  the 
street  or  yard  is  an  outer  court.  If  it  extends  to  the  street  it  is  a 
street  court.   If  it  extends  to  the  yard  it  is  a  yard  court. 

(4)  A  shaft  includes  exterior  and  interior  shafts,  whether  for 
air,  light,  elevator,  dumb-waiter,  or  any  other  purpose.  A  vent- 
shaft  is  one  used  solely  to  ventilate  or  light  a  water-closet  com- 
partment or  bathroom. 

227 


228 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


(5)  A  public  hall  is  a  hall,  corridor  or  passageway  not  within 
an  apartment. 

(6)  A  stair  hall  includes  the  stairs,  stair  landings  and  those 
portions  of  the  public  halls  through  which  it  is  necessary  to  pass 
in  going  between  the  entrance  floor  and  the  roof. 

(7)  A  basement  is  a  story  parth^  but  not  more  than  one-half 
below  the  level  of  the  curb. 

(8)  A  cellar  is  a  story  more  than  one-half  below  the  level  of 
the  curb. 

(9)  A  fireproof  tenement-house  is  one  the  walls  of  which  are 
constructed  of  brick,  stone,  iron  or  other  hard  incombustible  ma- 
terial, and  in  which  there  are  no  wood  beams  or  lintels,  and  in 
which  the  floors,  roofs,  stair  halls  and  public  halls  are  built  en- 
tirely of  brick,  stone,  iron  or  other  hard  incombustible  material, 
and  in  which  no  woodwork  or  other  inflammable  material  is 
used  in  any  of  the  partitions,  fuiTings  or  ceilings.  But  this 
definition  shall  not  be  constmed  as  prohibiting,  elsewhere  than 
in  the  stair  halls  or  entrance  halls,  the  use  of  wooden  flooring 
on  top  of  the  fireproof  floors,  or  the  use  of  wooden  sleepers,  nor  as 
prohibiting  wooden  handrails  and  hard-wood  treads  such  as  de- 
scribed in  section  eighteen  of  this  act. 

(10)  The  word  shall  is  always  mandatory,  and  not  directory, 
and  denotes  that  the  house  shall  be  maintained  in  all  respects 
according  to  the  mandate,  as  long  as  it  continues  to  be  a  tene- 
ment-house. 

(11)  Wherever  the  words,  charter,  ordinances,  regulations,  de- 
partment of  buildings,  department  of  health,  department  of  water- 
supply,  fire  department,  corporation  counsel,  city  treasury  or  fire 
limits  occur  in  this  act,  they  shall  be  construed  as  if  followed  by 
the  words  "  of  the  city  in  which  the  tenement-house  is  situated." 

See.  3.  Buildings  converted  or  altered.  A  building  not  erected 
for  use  as  a  tenement-house,  if  hereafter  converted  or  altered  to 
such  use,  shall  thereupon  become  subject  to  all  the  provisions  of 
this  act  affecting  tenement-houses  hereafter  erected. 

iSec.  4.  Buildings  in  process  of  erection.  A  tenement-house  not 
now  completed,  but  the  excavation  for  which  shall  have  been  com- 
menced in  good  faith  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  June,  nineteen 
hundred  and  one,  after  approval  of  the  plans  therefor  by  the  de- 
partment of  buildings  and  the  first  tier  of  beams  of  which  shall 
have  been  set  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  August,  nineteen  hundred 


TENEMENT  HOUSE  LAW. 


229 


and  one,  shall  be  subject  only  to  the  provisions  of  this  act  affect- 
ing now-existing  tenement-houses;  provided,  that  the  plans  for  the 
said  house  were  filed  in  said  department  on  or  before  the  tenth 
day  of  April,  nineteen  hundred  and  one,  and  were  in  accordance 
with  the  laws  in  force  at  the  time  of  filing,  and  that  the  building 
is  built  in  accordance  with  such  laws. 

Sec.  5.  Corner  lots.  When  a  lot  is  situated  at  a  corner  of  two 
streets,  if  it  has  more  frontage  upon  one  street  than  the  other,  the 
lesser  frontage  shall  be  deemed  the  width  and  the  greater  frontage 
the  depth  of  the  lot  within  the  meaning  of  this  act;  and  when 
the  width  is  greater  than  twenty-five  feet,  the  excess  over  said 
twenty-five  feet  shall  not  be  deemed  part  of  a  corner  lot,  but  shall 
be  subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  act  in  relation  to  lots  other 
than  corner  lots. 

CHAPTER  II. 

PROTECTION  FROM  FIRE. 

Title  I. 

Provisions  Applicable  Only  to  Tenement-houses  Hereafter  Erected. 

Sec.  11.  Fireproof  tenements,  when  required.  Every  tenement- 
house  hereafter  erected  exceeding  fifty-seven  feet,  or  exceeding 
five  stories  or  parts  of  stories,  in  height  above  the  curb  level,  shall 
be  a  fireproof  tenement-house,  nor  shall  any  tenement-house  be 
altered  so  as  to  exceed  such  height  without  being  made  a  fireproof 
tenement-house;  provided,  that  this  section  shall  not  apply  to  a 
building  of  a  height  not  exceeding  sixty-seven  feet,  and  not  ex- 
ceeding six  stories  or  parts  of  stories  in  height  above  the  curb 
level  if  such  building  shall  have  a  frontage  exceeding  forty  feet. 
A  cellar  is  not  a  story  within  the  meaning  of  this  section. 

Sec.  12.  Fire-escapes.  Every  non-fireproof  tenement-house  here- 
after erected,  unless  provided  with  fireproof  outside  stairways 
directly  accessible  to*  each  apartment,  shall  have  fire-escapes  lo- 
cated and  constructed  as  in  this  section  required,  except  that 
tenement-houses  that  are  less  than  four  stories  in  height  and 
which  also  do  not  contain  accommodations  for  more  than  four 
families  in  all,  may  be  equipped  with  such  other  iron,  steel,  or 
wire  cable  fire-escapes  as  may  be  approved  by  the  department  of 
buildings,  such  escapes  must  be  capable  of  sustaining  two  thou- 


230 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


sand  pounds,  and  be  of  sufficient  length  to  reach  from  the  top 
floor  to  the  ground,  and  with  rungs  not  more  than  twelve  inches 
apart  and  not  less  than  fifteen  inches  in  length. 

(1)  The  fire-escapes  shall  be  located  both  on  the  front  and  rear 
of  the  building  at  each  story  above  the  ground  floor,  and  where 
there  is  an  apartment  not  containing  any  room  fronting  on  either 
the  street  or  yard,  an  additional  fire-escape  shall  be  provided 
for  such  apartment.  Where,  however,  there  are  not  more  than 
four  rooms  in  a  line  comprising  part  of  one  apartment,  and  the 
apartment  extends  from  the  street  to  the  yard,  the  rear  fire-escape 
may  be  omitted.  Fire-escapes  may  project  into  the  public  high- 
way to  a  distance  not  gi'eater  than  four  feet  beyond  the  building 
line. 

(2)  The  fire-escapes  shall  consist  of  outside  open  iron  balconies 
and  stairways.  The  stairways  shall  be  placed  at  an  angle  of  not 
more  than  sixty  degrees,  with  steps  not  less  than  six  inches  in 
width  and  twenty  inches  in  length,  and  with  a  rise  of  not  more 
than  nine  inches.  The  balcony  on  the  top  floor,  except  in  case  of 
a  front  fire-escape,  shall  be  provided  with  a  goose-neck  ladder 
leading  from  said  balcony  to  and  above  the  roof. 

(3)  Balconies.  The  balconies  shall  not  be  less  than  three  feet 
in  width,  taking  in  at  least  one  window  of  each  apartment  at 
each  story  above  the  ground  floor.  They  shall  be  below  and  not 
more  than  one  foot  below  the  window  sills,  and  extend  in  front 
of  and  not  less  than  nine  inches  beyond  each  window.  There 
shall  be  a  landing  not  less  than  twenty-four  inches  square  at  the 
head  and  foot  of  each  stairway.  The  stainvay  opening  on  each 
platform  shall  be  of  a  size  sufficient  to  provide  clear  headway. 

(4)  Floors  of  balconies.  The  floors  of  balconies  shall  be  of 
wrought  iron  or  steel  slats  not  less  than  one  and  a  half  inches  by 
three-eighths  of  an  inch,  placed  not  more  than  one  and  one-quarter 
inches  apart,  and  well  secured  and  riveted  to  iron  battens  one  and 
a  half  inches  by  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  nor  over  three  feet  apart 
and  riveted  at  the  intersection.  The  openings  for  stairways  in  all 
buildings  shall  not  be  less  than  twenty-one  inches  wide  and 
thirty-six  inches  long,  and  such  openings  shall  have  no  covers  of 
any  kind.  The  platforms  or  balconies  shall  be  constructed  and 
erected  to  safely  sustain  in  all  their  parts  a  safe  load  at  a  ratio 
of  four  to  one,  of  not  less  than  eighty  pounds  per  square  foot  of 
surface. 


TEyEMEXT-HO  VSE  LA  W. 


231 


(5)  Railings.  The  oiil^^ide  lop  rail  shall  extend  around  the  en- 
tire length  of  the  platform  and  in  all  cases  shall  go  through  the 
wall  at  each  end,  and  be  properly  secured  by  nuts  and  four-inch 
square  washers  at  least  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
no  top  rail  shall  be  connected  at  angles  by  cast  iron.  The 
top  rail  of  balconies  shall  be  one  and  three-quarter  inches  by 
one-half  inch  of  wrought  iron,  or  one  and  a  half  inch  angle  iron 
one-quarter  inch  thick.  The  bottom  rails  shall  be  one  and 
one-half  inches  by  three-eighths  of  an  inch  wrought  iron,  or 
one  and  a  half  inch  angle  iron,  one-quarter  inch  thick,  well  leaded 
into  the  wall.  The  standards  or  filling-in  bars  shall  not  be  less 
than  one-half  inch  round  or  square  wrought  iron,  well  riveted  to 
the  top  and  bottom  rails  and  platfonn  frame.  Such  standards  or 
filling-in  bars  shall  be  securely  braced  by  outside  brackets  at  suit- 
able intervals,  and  shall  be  placed  not  mora  than  six  inches  from 
centres:  the  height  of  railings  shall  in  no  case  be  less  than  two 
feet  nine  inches, 

(6)  Stairways.  The  stainvays  shall  be  constructed  and  erected 
to  fully  sustain  in  all  their  parts  a  safe  load  at  a  ratio  of  four 
to  one  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  pounds  per  step,  with  the 
exception  of  the  tread,  which  must  safely  sustain  at  said  ratio  a 
load  of  t^v  o  hundred  pounds.  The  treads  shall  be  flat  open  treads 
not  less  tnan  six  inches  wide  and  with  a  rise  of  not  more  than 
nine  inches.  The  stairs  shall  be  not  less  than  twenty  inches  wide 
The  strings  shall  not  be  less  than  three-inch  channels  of  iron  or 
steel,  or  other  shap'e  equally  strong,  and  shall  rest  upon  and  be 
fastened  to  a  bracket,  which  shall  be  fastened  through  the  wall 
as  hereinafter  provided.  The  strings  shall  be  securely  fastened 
to  the  balcony  at  the  top,  arid  the  steps  in  all  cases  shall  be 
double-riveted  or  bolted  to  the  strings.  The  stairs  shall  have 
three-quarter  inch  handrails  of  wrought  iron,  well  braced. 

(7)  Brackets.  The  brackets  shall  not  be  less  than  one-half 
inch  by  one  and  three-quarter  inches  wrought  iron  placed  edge- 
wise, or  one  and  three-quarter  inch  angle  iron,  one-quarter  inch 
thick,  well  braced;  they  shall  not  be  more  than  four  feet  apart, 
and  shall  be  braced  by  means  of  not  less  than  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  square  wrought  iron,  and  shall  extend  two-thirds  of  the 
width  of  the  respective  balconies  or  brackets.  The  brackets  shall 
go  through  the  wall  and  be  turned  down  three  inches,  or  be  prop- 
erly secured  by  nuts  and  four-inch  square  washers  at  least  three- 


232 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


eiglitlis  of  an  inch  thick.  On  new  buildings  tlie  brackets  shall  be 
set  as  the  walls  are  being  built.  When  brackets  are  put  on  tene- 
ment-houses already  erected,  the  part  going  through  the  wall 
shall  not  be  less  than  one  inch  in  diameter  with  screw  nuts  and 
washers  not  less  than  five  inches  square  and  one-half  an  inch  thick. 

(8)  Drop-ladders.  A  proper  drop-ladder  shall  be  required  from 
the  lower  balcony  when  the  floor  of  such  balcony  is  more  than 
fourteen  feet  above  the  sidewalk  or  ground. 

(9)  Painting.  All  the  parts  of  such  fire-escapes  shall  receive 
not  less  than  two  coats  of  paint,  one  in  the  shop  and  one  after 
erection.  All  fire-escape  balconies  shall  contain  a  plate  firmly 
fastened  to  the  standards  or  filling-in  bars  near  the  top  railing 
in  front  of  each  window,  such  plate  to  contain  in  plain,  large, 
prominent,  raised  letters,  each  letter  to  be  not  less  than  one-half 
an  inch  in  length,  the  following  words:  "Any  one  placing  any 
encumbrance  on  this  balcony  will  be  fined  ten  dollars." 

(13)  Bulkheads.  Every  tenement-house  hereafter  erected  shall 
have  in  the  roof  a  fireproof  bulkhead  with  a  fireproof  door  to 
the  same,  and  shall  have  fireproof  stairs  with  a  guide  or  hand- 
rail leading  to  the  roof,  and  svich  stairs  shall  be  kept  free  from 
encumbrance  at  all  times.  No  bulkhead  door  shall  at  any  time 
be  locked  with  a  key,  but  it  may  be  fastened  on  the  inside  by 
movable  bolts  or  liooks. 

Sec.  14.  Stairs  and  public  halls.  Every  tenement-house  here- 
after erected  shall  have  at  least  one  flight  of  stairs  extending 
from  the  entrance  floor  to  the  roof,  and  the  stairs  and  public  halls 
therein  shall  each  be  at  least  three  feet  wide  in  the  clear. 

Sec.  15.  Stairways  in  non-fireproof  buildings.  Every  non-fire- 
proof tenement-house  hereafter  erected  containing  over  eighty 
rooms  shall  also  have  an  additional  flight  of  stairs  for  every  addi- 
tional eighty  rooms  or  fraction  thereof;  if  ^id  house  contains  not 
more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  rooms,  in  lieu  of  an  addi- 
tional stairway  the  stairs  and  public  halls  throughout  the  entire 
building  may  each  be  at  least  one-half  wider  than  is  specified  in 
sections  fourteen  and  twenty  of  this  act. 

Sec.  16.  Stairways  in  fireproof  buildings.  Every  fireproof 
tenement-house  hereafter  erected  containing  over  one  hundred  and 
twenty  rooms  shall  have  an  additional  flight  of  stairs  for  every 
additional  one  hundred  and  twenty  rooms  or  fraction  thereof;  but 
if  said  house  contains  not  more  than  one  hundred  and  eighty 


TENEMENT-HOUSE  LAW. 


233 


rooms,  in  lieu  of  an  additional  stairway  the  stairs  and  public 
halls  throughout  the  entire  building  may  each  be  at  least  one- 
half  wider  than  is  specified  in  sections  fourteen  and  twenty  of 
this  act;  and  a  power  passenger  elevator,  enclosed  in  a  separate 
shaft  from  the  stairs,  and  distant  not  less  than  thirty-five  feet 
from  the  main  flight  of  stairs,  shall  be  deemed  the  equivalent  of 
an  additional  flight. 

See.  17.  Each  flight  of  stairs  mentioned  in  the  last  three  sec- 
tions shall  have  an  entrance  on  the  entrance  floor  from  the  street 
or  street  court,  or  from  an  inner  court  which  connects  directly 
with  the  street.  All  stairs  shall  be  constructed  with  a  rise  of 
not  more  than  seven  and  one-half  inches  and  with  treads  not  less 
than  ten  inches  wide  and  not  less  than  three  feet  long  in  the 
clear.  Where  Avinders  are  usedj  all  treads  at  a  point  eighteen 
inches  from  the  strings  on  the  well  side  shall  be  at  least  ten 
inches  wide. 

Sec.  18.  Stair  halls.  The  stair  halls  in  all  non-fireproof  as  well 
as  fireproof  tenement-houses  hereafter  erected  shall  be  constructed 
of  fireproof  material  throughout,  except  as  in  this  section  speci- 
fied. The  risers,  strings  and  banisters  shall  be  of  metal  or  stone. 
The  treads  shall  be  of  metal,  slate  or  stone,  or  of  hard  wood  not 
less  than  two  inches  thick.  Wooden  hand  rails  to  stairs  will  be 
permitted  if  constructed  of  hard  wood.  The  floors  of  all  stair 
lialls  shall  be  constructed  of  iron  or  steel  beams  and  fireproof  fill- 
ing, and  no  non-fireproof  flooring  or  sleepers  shall  be  permitted. 
All  windows  on  stair  halls  opening  on  courts  shall  be  of  good 
quality  wire-glass  in  frames  of  fireproof  material. 

Sec.  19.  In  every  non-fireproof  tenement-house  hereafter  erected 
all  stair  halls  shall  be  enclosed  on  all  sides  with  brick  walls. 
The  doors  opening  from  stair  halls  shall  be  fireproof  and  self- 
closing,  and  if  provided  with  glass  such  glass  shall  be  good  quality 
wire-glass.  There  shall  be  no  transom  or  movable  sash  opening 
from  a  stair  hall  to  any  other  part  of  the  house.  Except  on  the 
entrance  floor,  each  stair  hall  sliall  be  shut  off  from  all  non-fire- 
proof portions  of  the  public  halls  and  from  all  other  non-fireproof 
parts  of  the  building,  on  each  story,  by  self-closing  fireproof  doors, 
and  if  glass  is  used  in  such  doors  it  shall  be  of  good  quality  wire- 
glass. 

Sec.  20.  Entrance  halls.  Every  entrance  hall  in  a  tenement- 
house  hereafter  erected  shall  be  at  least  three  feet  six  inches  wide 


234: 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


in  the  clear,  from  the  entrance  up  to  and  including  the  stair  en- 
closure, and  beyond  this  point  at  least  three  feet  wide  in  the 
clear.  It  shall  be  enclosed  with  brick  walls,  and  shall  comply  with 
all  the  conditions  of  the  preceding  sections  of  this  act  as  to  the 
construction  of  stair  halls.  If  such  entrance  hall  is  the  only  en- 
trance to  more  than  one  flight  of  stairs,  said  hall  shall  be  increased 
one  foot  in  width  in  every  part  for  each  such  additional  flight  of 
stairs.  In  every  such  house,  access  shall  be  had  from  the  streci 
to  the  yard,  either  in  a  direct  line  or  through  a  court. 

Sec.  21,  First  tier  of  beams.  In  all  non-fireproof  as  well  as 
fireproof  tenement-houses  hereafter  erected  five  stories  or  more 
in  height,  exclusive  of  the  cellar,  the  first  floor  above  the  cellar, 
or,  if  there  be  no  cellar,  above  the  lowest  story,  shall  be  con- 
structed fireproof  with  iron  or  steel  beams  and  fireproof  flooring; 
and  the  bottom  flanges  and  all  exposed  portions  of  such  iron  or 
steel  beams  below  the  abutments  of  the  floor  arches  or  filling 
shall  be  entirely  encased  with  hard-burnt  clay  or  porous  ten'a 
cotta,  or  with  metal  lath  properly  secured  and  plastered  on  the 
under  side.  In  all  non-fireproof  tenement-houses  hereafter  erected 
less  than  five  stories  in  height,  where  the  first  floor  above  the 
cellar,  or,  if  there  be  no  cellar,  above  tlie  lowest  story,  is  not  con- 
structed fireproof  with  iron  or  steel  beams  and  fireproof  flooring, 
the  cellar  ceiling  of  said  tenement-house  shall  be  lathed  with  wire 
or  metal  lath  and  plastered  thereon  with  two  coats  of  brown 
mortar  of  good  materials,  or  shall  be  covered  with  plaster  boards 
not  less  than  one-half  inch  in  thickness,  made  of  plaster  and 
strong  fibre,  and  all  joints  made  true  and  well-pointed. 

Sec.  22.  Partitions,  Construction  of.  In  all  non-fireproof  tene- 
ment-houses hereafter  erected,  fore-and-aft  stud  partitions  which 
rest  directly  over  each  other  shall  run  through  the  wooden  floor 
beams  and  rest  upon  the  plate  of  the  partition  below,  and  shall 
have  the  studding  filled  in  solid  between  the  uprights  to  the  depth 
of  the  floor  beams  with  suitable  incombustible  materials.  In  all 
fireproof  tenement-houses  hereafter  erected,  all  partitions  shall 
rest  directly  upon  the  flreproof  floor  construction,  and  extend  to 
the  fireproof  beam  filling  above. 

Sec.  23.  Cellar  stairs  in  non-fireproof  buildings.  In  non-fire- 
proof tenement-houses  hereafter  erected  there  shall  be  no  inside 
^>tairs  communicating  between  the  cellar  or  other  lowest  story 
and  the  floor  next  above,  but  such  stairs  shall  in  every  case  be 


TENEMENT-HOVSE  LA^y, 


235 


located  outside  the  building,  and  if  enclosed  shall  be  constructed 
entirely  fijc  proof  and  be  enclosed  in  a  fireproof  enclosure  with 
fireproof  self-closing  doors  at  all  openings. 

Sec.  24.  Cellar  stairs  in  fireproof  buildings.  In  every  fire- 
proof tenement-house  hereafter  erected  the  stairs  communicating 
between  the  cellar  and  other  lowest  story  and  the  floor  next 
above,  if  not  located  underneath  the  stairs  leading*  to  the  upper 
stories,  may  be  placed  inside  of  the  said  building;  provided,  that 
the  portion  of  the  cellar  or  other  lowest  story  into  which  said 
stairs  lead  is  entirely  shut  oft'  by  fireproof  walls  from  those  por- 
tions thereof  whieli  are  used  for  the  storage  of  fuel,  or  in  which 
heating  appliances,  boilers  or  machinery  are  located.  All  open- 
ings in  such  walls  shall  be  provided  with  self-closing  fireproof  doors. 

Sec.  25.  Closet  under  first-story  stairs.  In  non-fireproof  tene- 
ment-houses hereafter  erected  no  closet  of  any  kind  shall  be  con- 
structed under  any  staircase  leading  from  the  first  story,  exclu- 
sive of  the  cellar,  to  the  upper  stories,  but  such  space  shall  be 
left  entirely  open  and  kept  clear  and  free  from  encumbrance. 

Sec.  26.  Cellar  entrance.  In  every  tenement-house  hereafter 
erected  there  shall  be  an  entrance  to  tlie  cellar  or  other  lowest 
story  from  the  outside  of  the  said  building.  In  such  tenement- 
houses,  unless  the  entire  ceiling  and  floor  above  the  cellar  or 
other  lowest  story  is  constructed  fireproof,  all  receptacles  for  fuel 
or  storage  in  the  cellar  or  otiier  lowest  story  shall  be  constructed 
entirely  of  fire})roof  materials. 

Sec.  27.  Fire-stops.  In  tenement-houses  hereafter  erected,  in  all 
walls  all  the  courses  of  brick  from  the  under  side  of  the  floor 
beams  to  the  top  of  the  same  shall  project  a  distance  of  at  least 
two  inches  beyond  the  inside  face  of  the  wall,  so  as  to  provide 
an  effective  fire-stop;  and  wherever  floor  beams  run  parallel  to 
a  wall  such  beams  shall  always  be  kept  at  least  two  and  one-half 
inches  away  from  the  inside  line  of  the  wall,  and  the  space  be- 
tween the  beams  and  the  wall  shall  be  built  up  solidly  with  brick- 
work from  the  under  side  of  the  floor  beams  to  the  top  of  the 
same,  so  as  to  form  an  effective  fire-stop. 

Sec.  28.  Wooden  tenement-houses.  Within  the  fire  limits  no 
wooden  tenement-house  shall  hereafter  be  erected,  and  no  wooden 
building  not  now  used  as  a  tenement-house  shall  hereafter  be  al- 
tered or  converted  to  such  use.  Outside  of  the  fire  limits,  wooden 
tenement-houses  not  exceeding  two  stories  in  height,  exclusive  of 


236  HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


the  cellar,  may  be  erected,  but  shall  not  proA  ide  accommodations 
for,  or  be  occupied  by,  more  than  four  families  in  all,  or  more  than 
two  families  on  any  floor;  and  such  houses  need  not  comply  with 
the  foregoing  provisions  of  this  act  in  reference  to  protection  from 
fire  nor  with  the  provisions  of  sections  twenty-nine,  thirty,  thirty- 
one,  thirty-two,  thirty-six,  thirty-seven  and  thirty-eight  of  this 
act. 

Title  II. 

Provisiovs  AppUcahle  OnJij  to  Now-e.Hsting  Tenement-houses. 

Sec.  29.  Fire-escapes.  Every  now-existing  non-fireproof  tene- 
ment-house, unless  provided  with  fireproof  outside  stairways  di- 
rectly accessible  to  each  apartment,  shall  have  fire-escapes  located 
and  constructed  as  described  in  section  twelve  of  this  act.  But 
a  fire-escape  now  erected  upon  such  house  shall  be  deemed  suffi- 
cient except  as  provided  in  the  next  two  sections. 

Sec.  30.  In  every  now-existing  non-fireproof  tenement-house 
there  shall  be  a  separate  fire-escape  directly  accessible  to  each  de- 
partment, exclusive  of  fire-escapes  in  air  shafts  and  courts;  and 
a  party-wall  fire-escape  balcony  on  the  rear  of  the  building  con- 
necting with  the  window  of  an  adjoining  building  shall  be  deemed 
a  sufficient  fire-escape  only  when  the  two  buildings  are  completely 
separated  by  an  unpieced  fire-wall  throughout  their  entire  height 
and  length.  All  wooden  floor  slats  and  floors  in  fire-escape  bal- 
conies shall  be  replaced  by  proper  iron  slats  or  floors.  No  wooden 
balcony  or  wooden  outside  stairs  shall  be  deemed  part  of  a  lawful 
fire-escape. 

Sec.  31.  Whenever  a  now-existing  non-fireproof  tenement-house 
is  not  provided  with  sufficient  means  of  egress  in  case  of  fire,  the 
department  of  buildings  may  order  such  additional  fire-escapes 
or  other  means  of  egress  as  in  its  judgment  may  be  necessary. 

Sec.  32.  Scuttles,  bulkheads  and  ladders.  Every  now-existing 
tenement-house  shall  have  in  the  roof  a  bulkhead  or  scuttle  con- 
structed as  in  this  section  required.  No  scuttle  shall  be  less  in 
size  than  two  feet  by  three  feet,  and  all  scuttles  shall  be  covered 
on  the  outside  with  metal  and  shall  be  provided  with  stationary 
iron  ladders  or  stairs  leading  thereto  and  easily  accessible  to  all 
tenants  of  the  building  and  kept  free  from  encumbrance,  and  all 
scuttles  and  ladders  shall  be  kept  so  as  to  be  ready  for  use  at 


TmEMENT-IIOUSE  LAW. 


237 


all  limes.    Every  bulkhead  hereafter  constructed  in  a  tenement-  | 

house  shall  be  fireproof  with  a  firepioof  door  to  the  same  and  | 

shall  have  fireproof  stairs  with  a  guide  or  handrail  leading  to  the  j 

roof,  and  such  stairs  shall  be  kept  free  from  encumbrance  at  all  j 

times.    No  scuttle  and  no  bulkhead  door  shall  at  any  time  be  \ 

locked  w^ith  a  key,  but  either  may  be  fastened  on  the  inside  by  ■ 

movable  bolts  or  hooks.  j 

Sec.  33.  Stair  halls,  public  halls  and  entrance  halls.    If  any  ] 

now-existing  tenement-house  shall  be  so  altered  as  to  increase  the  j 

number  of  rooms  therein  by  twenty  per  centum  or  more,  or  if  i 

such  building  is  increased  in  height,  the  entire  stair  halls,  entrance  | 

halls  and  other  public  halls  of  the  whole  building  shall  be  made  j 

to  conform  to  the  requirements  of  sections  fourteen  to  twenty,  | 

inclusive,  of  this  act.  •\ 

Sec.  34.  Tenements  damaged  by  fire.    If  any  now-existing  tene-  | 

ment-house  shall  hereafter  be  damaged  by  fire  or  otherwise  to  j 

an  amount  greater  than  one-half  of  the  value  thereof,  exclusive  ( 

of  the  value  of  the  foundation,  such  building  shall  not  be  repaired  i 

or  rebuilt  except  in  conformity  with  the  foregoing  provisions  of  i 
this  act  for  the  construction  of  tenement-houses  hereafter  erected. 
If  the  stairs  in  any  now-existing  tenement-house  shall  be  damaged 
by  fire  or  otherwise,  to  an  amount  greater  than  one-half  of  the 
value  thereof,  the  entire  stairs  in  the  said  tenement-house  shall  be 
reconstructed  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this  act  for 

stairs  in  tenement-houses  hereafter  erected.  ] 

Title  III. 

Provisions  Applicable  to  all  Tenement -houses  Hereafter  Erected  ' 

or  Now  Existing,  i 

'\ 

Sec.   35.  Fire-escapes.    All   fire-escapes   hereafter  constructed  ■ 

upon  tenement-houses  shall  be  located  and  constructed  as  described  ^ 

in  section  twelve  of  this  act.    The  owner  of  every  tenement-house  < 

shall  keep  all  the  fire-escapes  thereon  in  good  order  and  repair,  | 

and  whenever  rusty  shall  have  them  properly  painted  with  two  ' 

coats  of  paint.    No  person  shall  at  any  time  place  any  encum-  j 

brance  of  any  kind  before  or  upon  any  such  fire-escape.  j 

Sec.  36.  Stairways.    In  every  tenement-house  all  stairways  shall  i 

be  provided  with  proper  banisters  and  railings  and  kept  in  good  | 

repair.  ] 


238 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


Sec.  37.  Shafts.  All  sliafts  hereafter  constructed  in  tenenient- 
liouses  shall  be  constructed  fireproof  throughout,  with  fireproof 
self-closing  doors  at  all  openings,  at  each  story,  except  window 
openings  in  vent-shafts;  and,  if  they  extend  to  the  cellar,  shall 
also  be  enclosed  in  the  cellar  with  fireproof  walls  and  fire- 
proof self-closing  doors  at  all  openings.  In  no  case  shall  any  shaft 
be  constructed  of  materials  in  which  any  inflammable  material 
or  substance  enters  into  any  of  the  component  parts.  But  noth- 
ing in  this  section  contained  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  require 
such  enclosures  about  elevators  or  dumb-waiters  in  the  well-hole 
of  stairs  Avhere  the  staii^s  themselves  are  enclosed  in  brick  or 
stone  walls,  and  are  entirely  constructed  of  fireproof  materials 
as  hereinbefore  provided. 

8ec.  38.  Plastering  behind  wainscoting.  When  wainscoting  is. 
hereafter  placed  in  any  tenement-house,  or  any  building  in  process 
of  alteration  into  a  tenement-house,  the  surface  of  the  wall  or 
partition  behind  such  wainscoting  shall  be  plastered  down  to  the 
floor  line,  and  any  intervening  space  between  said  plastering  and 
said  Avainscot  shall  be  filled  in  solid  with  incombustible  material. 

Sec.  39.  Wooden  buildings  on  same  lot  with  a  tenement-house. 
No  Avooden  building  of  any  kind  whatsoever  shall  hereafter  be 
placed  or  built  upon  the  same  lot  with  a  tenement-house  within 
the  fire  limits. 

Sec.  40.  Combustible  materials.  Xo  tenement-house,  nor  any 
part  thereof,  shall  be  used  as  a  place  of  storage  for  any  com- 
bustible article  except  under  such  conditions  as  may  be  prescribed 
by  the  fire  department,  under  authority  of  a  written  permit  issued 
by  said  department.  No  tenement-house,  nor  any  part  thereof, 
shall  be  used  as  a  place  of  storage  for  any  article  dangerous  to 
life  or  health,  nor  for  the  storage  of  feed,  hay,  straw,  excelsior  or 
cotton,  nor  for  the  storage  or  handling  of  rags. 

Sec.  41.  Bakeries  and  fat-boiling.  No  bakery  and  no  place  of 
business  in  which  fat  is  boiled  shall  be  maintained  in  any  tene- 
ment-house which  is  not  fireproof  throughout,  unless  the  ceiling 
and  side  walls  of  said  bakery  or  of  the  said  place  where  fat-boiling 
is  done  are  made  safe  by  fireproof  materials  around  the  same, 
and  there  shall  be  no  openings  either  by  door  or  window,  dumb- 
waiter shafts  or  otherwise,  between  said  bakerj^  or  said  place 
where  fat  is  boiled  in  any  tenement-house  and  the  other  parts  of 
the  said  building. 


TENBMENT-IIOUSE  LAW. 


239 


Sec,  42,  Other  dangerous  businesses.  AH  transoms  and  w  indowa 
opening  into  halls  from  any  portion  of  a  tenement-house  where 
paint,  oil,  spirituous  liquors  or  drugs  are  stored  for  the  purpose 
of  sale  or  otherwise  shall  be  glazed  with  wire-glass,  or  they  shall 
be  removed  and  closed  up  as  solidly  as  the  rest  of  the  wall;  and 
all  doors  leading  into  any  such  hall  from  such  portion  of  said 
house  shall  be  made  fireproof. 


CHAPTER  III. 

LIGHT  AND  VENTILATION. 

Title  I. 

Provisions  Applicable  Only  to  Tenement  houses  Hereafter  Erected. 

Sec.  51.  Percentage  of  lot  occupied.  Xo  tenement-house  here- 
after erected  shall  occupy  more  than  ninety  per  centum  of  a 
corner  lot,  or  more  than  seventy  i>er  centum  of  any  other  lot, 
the  measurements  in  all  cases  to  be  taken  at  the  ground  level; 
provided,  that  the  space  occupied  by  fire-escapes  of  the  size  here- 
inbefore prescribed  shall  not  be  deemed  a  part  of  the  lot  occupied. 

Sec.  52.  Height.  The  height  of  no  tenement-house  hereafter 
erected  shall  by  more  than  one-third  exceed  the  width  of  the 
widest  street  upon  which  it  stands.  Such  height  shall  be  the 
perpendicular  distance  measured  in  a  straight  line  from  the  curb 
level  to  the  highest  point  of  the  building  exclusive  of  cornices 
and  bulkheads,  provided  such  bulkheada  are  not  more  than  eight 
feet  high  and  do  not  exceed  in  area  ten  per  centum  of  the  area  of 
the  roof;  the  measurements  in  all  cases  shall  be  taken  through 
the  centre  of  the  facade  of  the  house. 

Sec.  53.  Yards.  Behind  every  tenement-house  hereafter  erected 
there  shall  be  a  yard  extending  across  the  entire  width  of  the 
lot  and  at  every  point  open  from  the  ground  to  the  sky  unob- 
structed, except  that  fire-escapes  or  unenclosed  outside  stairs  may 
project  not  over  three  feet  from  the  rear  line  of  the  house.  The 
depth  of  said  yard,  measured  from  the  extreme  rear  wall  of  the 
house  to  rear  line  of  the  lot^  shall  be  as  set  forth  in  the  two  fol- 
lowing sections. 

Sec.  54.  Yards  of  interior  lots.    Except  upon  a  corner  lot  the 


240 


HANDBOOK  OX  SANITATIOX. 


depth  of  the  yartl  behind  cAcry  teneinent-hoube  hereafter  erected 
sixty  feet  in  height  shall  be  not  less  than  twelve  feet  in  every 
part.  Said  yard  shall  be  increased  in  depth  one  foot  for  every 
additional  twelve  feet  of  height  of  the  building,  or  fraction  thereof; 
and  niaj'  be  decreased  in  depth  one  foot  for  every  twelve  feet  of 
height  of  the  building  less  than  sixty  feet:  but  it  shall  never  be 
less  than  ten  feet  in  depth  in  any  part. 

Sec,  55.  Yards  of  corner  lots.  The  depth  of  tlie  yard  behind 
every  tenement-house  hereafter  erected  upon  a  corner  lot  shall 
be  not  less  than  ten  feet  in  every  part. 

Sec.  56.  Yard  spaces  of  lots  running  through  from  street  to 
street.  Wherever  a  tenement-house  hereafter  erected  is  upon  a 
lot  which  runs  through  from  one  street  to  another  street,  and  said 
lot  is  not  less  than  seventy  feet  nor  more  than  one  hundred  feet 
in  depth,  there  shall  be  a  yard  space  through  the  centre  of  the 
lot  midway  between  the  two  streets,  which  space  shall  extend 
across  the  full  width  of  the  lot  and  shall  never  be  less  than  twelve 
feet  in  depth  from  wall  to  wall:  but  where  the  ground  floor  of 
such  building  is  used  or  intended  to  be  used  as  a  store,  such  yard 
space  may  start  at  the  second  tier  of  beams.  Where  such  lot  is 
over  one  hundred  feet  in  depth,  such  yard  space  shall  conform 
to  the  provisions  of  section  sixty-two  of  this  act  for  inner  courts, 
and  shall  be  left  through  the  centre  of  the  lot  midway  between 
the  two  streets. 

Sec.  57.  Courts,  ^'o  court  of  a  tenement-house  hereafter  erected 
shall  be  covered  by  a  roof  or  skylight,  but  eveiy  such  court  shall 
be  at  every  point  open  from  the  ground  to  the  sky  unobstructed, 
and  shall  conform  to  the  requirements  of  the  following  sections; 
provided,  that  an  apartment  not  containing  any  room  fronting 
upon  the  street  or  yard  may  have  a  fire-escape  in.  a  court,  pro- 
jecting not  more  than  three  feet  from  the  wall  of  the  house. 

Sec.  58.  Outer  Courts.  Where  one  side  of  an  outer  court  is 
situated  on  the  lot  line,  the  width  of  the  said  court,  measured 
from  the  lot  line  to  the  opposite  wall  of  the  building,  for  tene- 
ment-houses sixty  feet  in  height,  shall  not  be  less  than  six  feet 
in  any  part;  and  for  every  twelve  feet  of  increase  or  fraction 
thereof  in  height  of  the  said  building,  such  width  shall  be  in- 
creased six  inches  throughout  the  entire  height  of  said  court;  and 
for  every  twelve  feet  of  decrease  in  the  height  of  the  said  build- 
ing below  sixty  feet,  such  width  may  be  decreased  six  inches,  but 


TENEMJsyT-IIOVSE  LAW. 


241 


no  such  court  sliall  bo  less  than  four  feet  six  inches  wide  in  any 
part. 

Sec.  59.  Where  an  outer  court  is  situated  between  wings  or 
parts  of  the  same  buikling,  or  between  different  buildings  on  the 
same  lot,  the  width  of  the  said  court,  measured  from  wall  to  wall, 
for  tenement-houses  sixty  feet  in  height,  shall  not  be  less  than 
twelve  feet  in  any  part;  and  for  every  twelve  feet  of  increase  or 
fraction  thereof  in  the  height  of  the  said  building,  such  width 
shall  be  increased  one  foot  throughout  the  entire  height  of  the 
said  court;  and  for  every  twelve  feet  of  decrease  in  the  height  of 
the  said  building  below  sixty  feet,  such  width  of  the  said  court 
may  be  decreased  one  foot,  but  no  such  court  shall  ever  be  less 
than  nine  feet  in  width  in  any  part. 

Sec.  60.  Wherever  an  outer  court  changes  its  initial  horizontal 
direction,  or  wherever  any  part  of  such  court  extends  in  a  direc- 
tion so  as  not  to  receive  direct  light  from  the  street  or  yard,  the 
length  of  such  portion  of  said  court  shall  never  exceed  the  width 
of  said  portion;  such  length  to  be  measured  from  the  point  at 
which  the  change  of  direction  commences.  Wherever  an  outer 
court  is  less  in  depth  than  the  minimum  width  prescribed  by  this 
section,  then  its  width  may  be  equal  to,  but  not  less  than  its 
depth,  provided  that  such  width  is  never  less  than  four  feet  in 
the  clear.  This  exception  shall  also  apply  to  each  offset  or  recess 
in  outer  courts.  And  no  window  except  windows  of  water-closet 
compartments,  bathrooms  or  halls  shall  open  upon  any  offset  or 
recess  less  than  six  feet  in  its  least  dimension. 

Sec.  61.  Inner  Courts.  Where  one  side  of  an  inner  court  is 
situated  on  the  lot  line,  the  wndth  of  the  said  court  measured 
from  the  lot  line  to  the  opposite  w^all  of  the  building,  for  tene- 
ment-houses sixty  feet  in  height,  shall  not  be  less  than  twelve 
feet  in  any  part,  and  its  other  horizontal  dimensions  shall  not  be 
less  than  twenty-four  feet  in  any  part;  and  for  every  twelve  feet 
of  increase  or  fraction  thereof  in  the  height  of  the  said  building, 
such  width  shall  be  increased  six  inches  throughout  the  entire 
height  of  said  court,  and  the  other  horizontal  dimensions  shall  be 
increased  one  foot  throughout  the  entire  height  of  said  court ;  and 
for  every  twelve  feet  of  decrease  in  the  height  of  the  said  build- 
ing below  sixty  feet,  such  width  may  be  decreased  six  inches  and 
the  other  horizontal  dimension  may  be  decreased  one  foot,  but  no 
such  court  shall  be  less  than  ten  and  a  half  feet  in  width  in  any 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITA710N. 


part,  nor  less  thau  twenty-one  feet  in  its  other  Iiorizontal  dimen- 
sion. 

Sec.  02.  Where  an  inner  court  is  not  situated  upon  the  lot  line, 
but  is  enclosed  on  all  four  sides,  the  least  horizontal  dimension 
of  the  said  court,  for  tenement-houses  sixty  feet  in  height,  shall 
not  be  less  than  twenty-four  feet;  and  for  every  twelve  feet  o{ 
increase  or  fraction  thereof  in  the  height  of  the  said  building,  the 
said  court  shall  be  increased  one  foot  in  each  horizontal  dimen- 
sion, throughout  the  entire  height  of  said  court;  and  for  every 
twelve  feet  of  decrease  in  the  height  of  the  said  building  below 
sixty  feet,  the  horizontal  dimensions  of  the  said  court  may  be 
decreased  one  foot  in  each  direction,  but  no  such  court  shall  ever 
be  less  than  twenty- one  feet  in  its  last  horizontal  dimension.  Off- 
sets or  recesses  in  inner  courts  Avill  be  permitted,  but  where  the 
depth  of  such  offset  or  recess  is  less  than  the  minimum  width 
prescribed,  then  the  width  of  said  offset  or  recess  may  be  equal 
to  but  not  less  than  its  depth,  provided  that  such  w'idth  is  never 
less  than  four  feet  in  the  clear.  And  no  window  except  win- 
dows of  water-closet  compartments,  bathrooms  or  halls  shall 
open  upon  any  offset  or  recess  less  than  six  feet  in  its  least  dimen- 
sion. 

Sec.  63.  Every  inner  court  shall  be  provided  with  one  or  more 
horizontal  intakes  or  ducts  at  the  bottom.  Said  intake  or  ducts 
shall  be  not  less  in  total  area  than  four  per  centum  of  the  area  of 
said  inner  court.  Each  such  intake  or  duct  shall  be  at  least  five 
square  feet  in  area,  and  shall  always  communicate  directly  with 
the  street  or  yard.  Whenever  the  said  intakes  or  ducts  consist 
of  a  passageway  or  passageways,  such  passageway  shall  be  left 
open,  or  if  not  open  there  shall  always  be  provided  in  said  pas- 
sageway or  passageways  open  grilles  or  transoms  of  a  size  not 
less  than  five  square  feet  each,  and  such  open  grilles  or  transoms 
shall  never  be  covered  over  by  glass  or  in  any  other  way.  There 
shall  be  at  least  two  such  grilles  or  transoms  in  each  such  passage- 
way, one  at  the  inner  court  and  the  other  at  the  street  or  yard, 
as  the  case  may  be. 

Sec.  64.  Outer  and  inner  courts.  Nothing  contained  in  the  fore- 
going sections  concerning  outer  and  inner  courts  shall  be  con- 
strued as  preventing  windows  at  the  angles  of  said  courts,  provided 
that  the  running  length  of  the  wall  containing  such  windows  does 
not  exceed  six  feet.    In  construing  said  sections  the  height  of  the 


TENEMENT-HOUSE  LAW. 


243 


building  is  to  be  measured  from  the  curb  level  to  the  top  of  the 
highest  wall  enclosing  or  forming  such  court. 

Sec.  65.  Rear  tenements.  No  separate  tenement-house  shall 
hereafter  be  erected  upon  the  rear  of  a  lot  fifty  feet  or  less  in 
width  where  there  is  a  tenement-house  on  the  front  of  the  said 
lot,  nor  upon  the  front  of  any  such  lot  upon  the  rear  of  which 
there  is  such  a  tenement-house. 

See.  66.  Buildings  on  same  lot  with  tenement-houses.  If  an} 
building  is  hereafter  placed  on  the  same  lot  with  a  tenement- 
house,  the  space  between  the  said  buildings  shall  always  be  of  such 
size  and  arranged  in  such  manner  as  is  prescribed  in  section  sixty- 
two  of  this  act  for  inner  courts;  and  no  building  of  any  kind 
shall  be  hereafter  placed  upon  the  same  lot  with  a  tenement-house 
so  as  to  decrease  the  minimum  size  of  courts  or  yards  as  herein- 
before prescribed.  And  if  any  tenement-house  is  hereafter  erected 
upon  any  lot  upon  which  there  is  already  another  building,  it 
shall  comply  with  all  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  in  addi- 
tion the  space  between  the  said  building  and  the  said  tenement- 
house  shall  be  of  such  size  and  arranged  in  such  manner  as  is 
prescribed  in  section  sixty-two  of  this  act  for  inner  courts,  the 
height  of  the  highest  building  on  the  lot  to  regulate  the  dimen- 
sions. 

Sec.  67.  Rooms,  lighting  and  ventilation  of.  In  every  tenement- 
house  hereafter  erected  every  room,  except  water-closet  compart- 
ments and  bathrooms,  shall  have  at  least  one  window  opening 
directly  upon  the  street  or  upon  a  yard  or  court. 

Sec.  68.  Windows  in  rooms.  In  every  tenement-house  hereafter 
erected  the  total  window  area  in  each  room,  except  water-closet 
compartments  and  bathrooms,  shall  be  at  least  one-tenth  of  the 
superficial  area  of  the  room,  and  the  top  at  least  of  one  window 
shall  not  be  less  than  seven  feet  six  inches  above  the  floor,  and 
the  upper  half  of  it  shall  be  made  so  as  to  open  the  full  width. 
Xo  such  window  shall  be  less  than  twelve  square  feet  in  area 
between  the  stop  beads. 

Sec.  69.  Windows  in  water-closet  compartments  and  bathrooms. 
In  every  tenement-house  hereafter  erected  the  total  window  area 
in  a  water-closet  compartment  or  bathroom  shall  not  be  less  than 
three  square  feet  in  area  for  each,  and  no  such  window  shall  be 
less  than  one  foot  in  width,  measured  between  stop  beads. 

Sec.  70.  Rooms,  size  of.    In  every  tenemeut-house  hereafter 


244 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


erected  all  rooms,  except  water-closet  compartments  and  bath- 
rooms, shall  be  of  the  following  minimum  sizes:  In  each  apart- 
ment there  shall  be  at  least  one  room  containing  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  twenty  square  feet  of  floor  area,  and  each  other  room 
shall  contain  at  least  seventy  square  feet  of  floor  area.  Each  room 
shall  be  in  every  part  not  less  than  nine  feet  high  from  the 
finished  floor  to  the  finished  ceiling;  provided  that  an  attic  room 
need  be  nine  feet  high  in  but  one-half  its  area. 

Sec.  71.  Alcoves.  In  every  tenement-house  hereafter  erected 
where  any  room  adjoins  another  room,  and  has  eighty  per  centum 
or  more  of  one  entire  side  open  to  the  other  room,  and  there  is 
no  door  between,  it  shall  be  considered  as  part  of  the  said  room. 
Under  other  circumstances  every  alcove  shall  be  deemed  a  sepa- 
rate room  for  all  purposes  within  the  meaning  of  this  act. 

Sec.  72.  Public  halls.  In  every  tenement-house  hereafter  erected 
every  public  hall  shall  have  at  least  one  windoAV  opening  directly 
upon  the  street  or  upon  a  yard  or  court.  Either  such  window 
shall  be  at  the  end  of  said  hall,  with  the  plane  of  the  window  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis  of  said  hall,  or  there  shall  be  at  least  one 
window  opening  directly  upon  the  street  or  upon  a  yard  or  court 
for  every  twenty  feet  in  length  or  fraction  thereof  of  said  hall. 
In  such  halls  recesses  or  returns  the  length  of  which  does  not  ex- 
ceed tAvice  the  width  of  the  hall  will  be  permitted  without  an  ad- 
ditional window;  but  wherever  the  length  of  such  recess  or  re- 
turn exceeds  twice  the  width  of  the  hall,  the  above  provision  in 
reference  to  one  window  for  every  twenty  feet  of  hallway  shall 
be  applied.  Any  part  of  a  hall  Avhich  is  shut  off  from  any  other 
part  of  said  hall  by  a  door  or  doors  shall  be  deemed  a  separate  hall 
within  the  meaning  of  this  section. 

Sec.  73.  Windows  for  public  halls,  size  of.  In  every  tenement- 
house  hereafter  erected  one  at  least  of  the  windows  provided  to 
light  each  public  hall  or  part  thereof  shall  be  at  least  two  feet 
six  inches  wide  and  five  feet  high,  measured  between  stop  beads. 

See.  74.  Windows  for  stair  halls,  size  of.  In  every  tenement- 
house  hereafter  erected  the  aggregate  area  of  windows  to  light 
or  ventilate  stair  halls  shall  be  at  least  twenty-one  square  feet 
for  each  floor.  There  shall  be  provided  for  each  story  at  least 
one  of  said  windows,  which  shall  be  at  least  three  feet  wide  and 
five  feet  high,  measured  between  the  stop  beads. 

Sec.  75.  Privacy.    In  every  apartment  of  three  or  more  room^ 


TENEMENT-HOUSE  LAW. 


245 


in  a  teneincnt-liouse  hereafter  erected,  access  to  every  living  room 
and  bedroom,  and  to  at  least  one  water-closet  compartment,  shall 
be  had  without  passing  through  any  bedroom. 

Title  II. 

Provisions  Applicable  Only  to  Noic-c.ri sting  Tenement-Jwuses. 

Sec.  76.  Percentage  of  lot  occupied.  No  now-existing  tenement- 
house  shall  hereafter  be  enlarged,  or  its  lot  be  diminished,  so  that 
the  house  occupy  more  than  ninety  per  centum  of  a  corner  lot, 
or  more  than  seventy  per  centvim  of  any  other  lot,  the  measure- 
ments in  all  cases  to  be  taken  at  the  ground  level;  provided,  that 
the  space  occupied  by  fire-escapes  of  the  size  hereinbefore  pre- 
scribed shall  not  be  deemed  a  part  of  the  lot  occupied. 

Sec.  77.  Yards.  No  now-existing  tenement-house  shall  hereafter 
be  enlarged  or  its  lot  be  diminished,  so  that  the  yard  shall  be 
less  than  five  feet  in  depth  when  the  building  is  on  a  corner  lot, 
or  less  than  twelve  feet  in  depth  in  other  eases,  the  measurements 
in  all  cases  to  be  taken  from"  the  extreme  rear  wall  of  the  build- 
ing to  the  rear  lot  line  and  across  the  full  width  of  the  lot,  and 
such  yard  shall  be  at  every  point  open  from  the  ground  to  the 
sky,  except  as  provided  in  section  fifty-three  of  this  act. 

Sec.  78.  Additional  rooms  and  halls.  Any  additional  room  or 
hall  that  is  hereafter  constructed  or  created  in  a  now-existing 
tenement-house  shall  comply  in  all  respects  with  the  provisions 
of  the  foregoing  sections  of  this  chapter  as  to  the  size,  arrange- 
ment, light  and  ventilation  of  rooms  and  halls  in  tenement-houses 
hereafter  erected. 

Sec.  79.  Rooms,  lighting  and  ventilation  of,  continued.  No 
room  in  a  now-existing  tenement-house  shall  hereafter  be  occu- 
pied for  living  purposes  unless  it  shall  have  a  window  upon  the 
street,  or  upon  a  yard  not  less  than  five  feet  deep,  or  upon  a  court 
or  shaft  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  square  feet  in  area,  open 
to  the  sky  without  roof  or  skylight,  or  unless  such  room  Tias  a 
sash  window  opening  into  an  adjoining  room  in  the  same  apart- 
ment which  itself  has  a  window  opening  on  the  street,  or  on  a 
yard  not  less  than  five  feet  deep,  said  sash  window  having  at  least 
fifteen  square  feet  of  glazed  surface,  being  at  least  three  feet  high 
and  five  feet  wide  between  stop  beads,  and  at  least  one-half  thereof 


246 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION: 


being  made  to  open  readily.  Furthermore,  no  room  in  a  now- 
existing  tenement-house  which  does  not  have  a  window  opening 
directly  upon  the  street  or  upon  a  yard  not  less  than  five  feet 
deep  or  upon  a  court  or  shaft  of  not  less  than  tw^enty-five  square 
feet  in  area  open  to  the  sky  without  roof  or  skylight  shall  here- 
after be  occupied  for  living  purposes  unless  such  room  contains 
at  least  sixty  square  feet  of  floor  area,  and  also  at  least  six  hun- 
dred cubic  feet  of  air  space;  and  no  such  room  shall  be  so  occu- 
pied unless  there  is  six  hundred  cubic  feet  of  air  to  each  individual 
occupying  the  same.  No  such  room  shall  be  occupied  unless  it  be 
m  every  part  not  less  than  eight  feet  high  from  the  finished  floor 
10  the  finished  ceiling;  provided,  that  an  attic  room  need  be  eight 
feet  high  in  but  half  its  area. 

Sec.  80.  Public  halls,  lighting  of.  In  every  now-existing  tene- 
ment-house four  stories  or  over  in  height,  whenever  a  public  hall 
on  any  floor  is  not  light  enough  in  the  daytime  to  permit  a  per- 
son to  read  in  every  part  thereof  without  the  aid  of  artificial  light, 
the  wooden  panels  in  the  doors  located  at  the  ends  of  the  public 
halls  and  opening  into  rooms  shall  be  removed,  and  ground  glass 
or  wire-glass  panels  of  an  aggregate  of  not  less  than  four  square 
feet  for  each  door  shall  be  substituted;  or  in  lieu  of  removing  the 
panels  in  the  door  a  fixed  window  of  wire-glass  of  an  area  of 
not  less  than  five  square  feet  may  be  cut  into  the  partitions 
separating  the  said  hall  from  a  room  which  opens  directly  upon 
the  street  or  upon  a  yard,  court  or  shaft  of  the  dimensions  speci- 
fied in  the  last  section;  or  said  public  hall  may  be  lighted  by  a 
window  or  windows  at  the  end  thereof  with  the  plane  of  the  win- 
dow at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  said  hall,  said  window  open- 
ing upon  the  street  or  upon  a  yard,  court,  or  shaft  of  said  dimen 
sions. 

Sec.  81.  Light  and  vent  shafts  in  existing  buildings.  Any  sli- 
used  or  intended  to  be  used  to  light  or  ventilate  rooms  used  or  a. 
tended  to  be  used  for  living  purposes,  and  which  may  be  here 
after  placed  in  a  now-existing  tenement-house,  shall  not  be  less 
in  area  than  twenty-five  square  feet,  not  less  than  four  feet  in 
width  in  any  part,  and  such  shaft  shall  under  no  circumstances 
be  roofed  or  covered  over  at  the  top  with  a  roof  or  skylight;  but 
if  such  shaft  is  provided  at  the  bottom  with  a  horizontal  intake 
or  duet,  of  a  size  not  less  than  two  square  feet,  and  communicating 
direc^"ly  with  the  street  or  yard,  such  shaft  may  be  of  a,  size  not 


TENEMENT-HOUHE  LAW. 


247 


less  than  three  feet  by  five  feet,  provided  tliat  not  more  than  two 
rooms  on  any  floor  open  thereon,  and  that  if  it  be  used  to  light 
or  ventilate  any  living  room  no  water-closet  open  upon  it. 

Title  III. 

Provisions  Applicable  to  all  Tenement-houses  Hereafter  Erected 
or  Now  Existing. 

Sec.  82.  Public  halls.  In  every  tenement-house  a  proper  light 
shall  be  kept  burning  by  the  owner  in  the  public  hallways,  near 
the  stairs,  upon  the  entrance  floor,  and  upon  the  second  floor,  above 
the  entrance  floor  of  said  house,  every  night  from  sunset  to  sun- 
rise throughout  the  year,  and  upon  all  other  floors  of  the  said 
house  from  sunset  until  10  o'clock  in  the  evening. 

Sec.  83.  Skylights.  In  every  tenement-house  there  shall  be  in 
the  roof  directly  over  each  stair-well,  a  ventilating  skylight  with 
both  ridge  ventilators  and  fixed  louvres,  the  glazed  surface  thereof 
to  be  not  less  than  twenty-five  square  feet  in  area. 

See.  84.  Chimneys  or  fireplaces.  In  every  tenement-house  there 
shall  be  adequate  chimneys  running  through  every  floor  with  an 
open  fireplace  or  grate,  or  place  for  a  stove,  properly  connected 
with  one  of  said  chimneys  for  every  apartment. 

Sec.  85.  Vent  shafts.    Every  vent  shaft  hereafter  constructed 
in  a  tenement-house  shall  be  at  least  twenty  square  feet  in  area, 
and  the  least  dimension  of  such  shaft  shall  not  be  less  than  four 
feet;  and  if  the  building  be  above  sixty  feet  in  height,  such  shaft 
shall  throughout  its  entire  height  be  increased  in  area  three  squar 
feet  for  each  additional  twelve  feet  of  height  or  fraction  th  ; 
and  for  each  twelve  feet  of  height  less  than  sixty  feet  such  sh.  : 
may  be  decreased  in  area  three  square  feet.    A  vent  shaft  ma 
be  enclosed  on  all  four  sides,  but  shall  not  be  roofed  or  covere 
over  in  any  way.    Every  such  shaft  shall  be  provided  with  a 
horizontal  intake  or  duct  at  the  bottom,  communicating  with  the 
street  or  yard,  or  with  a  court;  such  duct  or  intake  to  be  not 
less  than  one  and  one-half  square  feet  in  total  area. 


248 


UANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


CHAPTER  lY. 

SANITARY  PROVISIONS. 

Title  I. 

Provisions  Applicable  Only  to  Tcnvment-houses  Hereafter  Erected. 

Sec.  91.  Basements  and  cellars.  In  tenement-houses  hereafter 
erected  no  room  in  the  cellar  shall  be  constructed,  altered,  con- 
verted or  occupied  for  living  purposes.  And  no  room  in  the  base- 
ment shall  be  constructed,  altered,  converted  or  occupied  for  liv- 
ing purposes,  unless  all  of  the  following  conditions  are  complied 
with : 

1.  Such  room  shall  be  at  least  nine  feet  high  in  every  part  from 
the  floor  to  the  ceiling. 

2.  The  ceiling  of  such  room  shall  be  at  least  four  feet  and  six 
inches  above  the  surface  of  the  street  or  ground  outside  of  or  ad- 
joining the  same. 

3.  There  shall  be  appurtenant  to  such  room  the  use  of  a  separate 
water-closet,  constructed  and  arranged  as  required  by  section 
ninety-five  of  this  act. 

4.  Such  room  shall  have  a  window  or  windows  opening  upon 
the  street,  or  upon  a  yard  or  court.  The  total  area  of  Avindows  in 
such  room  shall  be  at  least  one-eighth  of  the  superficial  area  of 
the  room,  and  one-half  of  the  sash  shall  be  made  to  open  the  full 
width,  and  the  top  of  each  window  shall  be  within  six  inches  of 
the  ceiling. 

5.  All  walls  surrounding  such  room  shall  be  made  damp-proof 
in  the  manner  specified  in  the  next  section. 

6.  The  floor  of  such  room  shall  be  made  damp-proof  and  water- 
proof in  the  manner  specified  in  the  next  section. 

Sec.  92.  Basements  and  cellars,  continued.  Every  tenement 
house  hereafter  erected  shall  have  all  walls  below  the  ground 
level  and  all  cellar  or  lower  floors  made  damp-proof  and  water- 
proof. Such  damp-proofing  and  water-proofing  shall  run  through 
the  walls  and  up  the  same  as  high  as  the  ground  level  and  shall 
be  continued  throughout  floor,  and  the  said  cellar  or  lowest  floor 
shall  be  properly  constructed  so  as  to  prevent  dampness  or  water 
from  entering. 

Sec.  93.  Shafts,  courts,  areas  and  yards.    In  every  tenement- 


TENEMENT-HOUSE  LAW. 


249 


house  hereafter  erected  the  bottom  of  all  shafts,  courts,  areas  and 
yards  which  extend  to  the  basement  for  light  or  ventilation  of 
living  rooms,  must  be  six  inches  below  the  floor  level  of  the  part 
occupied  or  intended  to  be  occupied.  All  shafts,  courts,  areas 
and  yards  shall  be  properly  concreted,  graded  and  drained,  and 
shall  be  properly  connected  with  the  street  sewer  so  that  all  water 
may  pass  freely  into  it. 

Sec.  94.  Water-supply.  In  every  tenement-house  hereafter 
erected  there  shall  be  in  each  apartment  a  proper  sink  with  run- 
ning Avater. 

Sec.  95.  Water-closet  accommodations.  In  every  tenement- 
house  hereafter  erected  there  shall  be  a  separate  water-closet  in 
a  separate  compartment  within  each  apartment,  provided  that 
where  there  are  apartments  consisting  of  but  one  or  two  rooms, 
there  shall  be  at  least  one  water-closet  for  every  three  rooms. 
All  water-closets  compartments  must  have  a  window  opening  upon 
the  street  or  yard  or  upon  a  court  or  vent  shaft.  Every  water- 
closet  compartment  shall  be  provided  witli  proper  means  of  light- 
ing the  same  at  night.  If  fixtures  for  gas  or  electricity  are  not 
provided  in  said  compartment,  then  the  door  of  said  compartment 
shall  be  provided  with  ground  glass  or  wire-glass  panels,  or  with  a 
ground  glass  or  wire-gfass  transom,  not  less  in  area  than  four 
square  feet.  The  floor  of  every  water-closet  compartment  shall 
be  made  waterproof  with  asphalt,  cement,  tile,  stone,  metal  or 
some  other  water-proof  material;  and  such  water-proofing  shall 
extend  at  least  six  inches  above  the  floor  so  that  the  said  floor 
can  be  washed  or  flushed  out  without  leaking.  No  drip  trays 
shall  be  permitted.  Xo  water-closet  fixtures  shall  be  enclosed 
with  any  woodwork. 

Sec.  96.  Plumbing.  In  every  tenement-house  hereafter  erected 
all  i)lumbing  pipes  shall  wherever  possible  be  exposed,  or  if  such 
pipes  are  covered  there  shall  be  at  each  floor  access  to  all  rising 
lines  through  removable  panels;  said  panels  shall  always  be  as 
wide  as  the  whole  stack  of  pipes  and  at  least  two  feet  and  six 
inches  in  height. 

Title  II. 

Provisions  Applicable  OnJij  to  Xow-ejoisting  Tenement-houses. 

Sec.  97.  Basements  and  cellars.  Hereafter  in  any  now-existing 
tenement-house  no  room  in  the  basement  or  cellar  shall  be  occu- 


250 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


pied  for  living  purposes  without  a  written  permit  from  the  depart- 
ment of  health,  and  such  permit  shall  be  kept  readily  accessible 
in  said  room.  And  no  such  room  shall  hereafter  be  occupied  un- 
less all  the  following  conditions  are  complied  with: 

1.  Such  room  shall  be  at  least  eight  feet  high  in  every  part 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling. 

2.  The  ceiling  of  such  room  shall  be  in  every  part  at  least  two 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  street  or  ground  outside  of  or  adjoin- 
ing the  same. 

3.  There  shall  be  appurtenant  to  such  room  the  use  of  a  separate 
water-closet. 

4.  There  shall  be  outside  of  and  adjoining  such  room,  and  ex- 
tending along  the  entire  frontage  thereof,  an  open  space  of  at 
least  two  feet  six  inches  wide  in  every  part.  The  bottom  of  said 
space  shall  be  at  least  six  inches  below  the  level  of  the  floor  of 
the  room,  and  such  space  shall  be  well  and  effectually  drained  by 
a  drain  the  bottom  of  which  shall  be  at  least  one  foot  below  the 
level  of  the  floor  of  the  room. 

5.  Such  room  shall  have  a  window  or  windows  opening  to  the 
outer  air  of  at  least  nine  feet  square  in  size  clear  of  the  sash 
frame  and  at  least  four  and  one-half  square  feet  of  which  shall 
have  been  made  to  readily  open  for  purposes  of  ventilation. 

6.  If  the  house  is  situated  over  marshy  ground,  or  ground  on 
which  water  lies,  or  ground  on  which  there  is  water  pressure 
from  below,  the  lowest  floor  shall  have  been  made  water-proof 
and  damp-proof. 

Sec.  98.  Water-closets.  In  all  now-existing  tenement-houses  the 
woodwork  enclosing  all  water-closets  shall  be  removed  from  the 
front  of  said  closet,  and  the  spa<ie  underneath  the  seat  shall  be  left 
open.  The  floor  or  other  surface  beneath  and  around  the  closet 
shall  be  maintained  in  good  order  and  repair,  and  shall  be  kept  v.  el' 
painted  with  white  paint. 

Sec.  99.  Public  sinks.  In  all  now-existing  t  nement-houses  the 
woodwork  enclosing  sinks  located  in  the  public  halls  or  stairs  shal 
be  removed  and  the  space  underneath  said  sinks  shall  be  left  open 
The  floors  and  wall  surfaces  beneath  and  around  the  sink  shall  be 
maintained  in  good  order  and  repair,  and  sliall  le  kept  well  painted 
with  white  paint. 

See.  TOO.  Privy  vaults,  school  sinks  c  nd  water-clo:ets.  Inallro  v- 
existing  tenement-liouses,  all  school  sinks,  piivy  vaults  or  other  sim- 


TBNEMENT-IIOVSE  LAW. 


251 


ilar  receptacles,,  used  to  receive  fecal  matter,  urine  or  sewage,  shall 
before  January  first,  nineteen  hundred  and  three,  be  completely 
removed  and  the  place  where  they  were  located  properly  disin- 
fected under  the  direction  of  the  department  of 'health.  Such  appli- 
ances shall  be  replaced  by  individual  water-closets  of  durable  non- 
absorbent  material,  properly  sewer  connected,  and  with  individual 
traps  and  properly  connected  flush  tanks  providing  an  ample  flush 
of  water  to  thoroughly  cleanse  the  bowl.  The  seats  of  the  water- 
closets  shall  be  hinged  and  attached  to  the  bowl  of  the  closet. .  Each 
water-closet  shall  be  located  in  a  compartment  completely  separated 
from  every  other  water-closet.  The  floors  of  the  water-closet 
compartments  shall  be  water-proof,  as  provided  in  section  ninety- 
five  of  the  act.  Such  water-closets  may  be  located  in  the  yard  if 
necessary,  and  if  so,  long  hopper  closets  may  be  used;  all  traps, 
flush  tanks  and  pipes  shall  be  protected  against  the  action  of  frost. 
There  shall  be  provided  at  least  one  water-closet  for  every  two  fam- 
ilies in  every  now-existing  tenement-house.  Except  as  in  this  sec- 
tion otherwise  provided,  such  water-closets  and  all  plumbing  in  con- 
nection therewith  shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  ordinances  and 
regulations  in  relation  to  plumbing  and  drainage. 


Title  III. 

Provisions  Applicahle  to  All  Tenement-houses,  Whether  Hereafter 
Erected  or  Now  Existing. 

Sec.  101.  Basements  and  cellars.  The  floor  of  the  cellar  or  lowest 
floor  of  eveiy  tenement-house  shall  be  water-tight,  and  the  cellar 
ceilings  shall  be  plastered. 

Sec.  102.  Cellar  walls  and  ceilings.  The  cellar  walls  and  ceilings 
of  every  tenement-house  shall  be  thoroughly  whitewashed  or 
painted  a  light  color  by  the  owner  at  least  once  a  year;  and  no 
tenement-house  hereafter  erected,  whether  or  not  it  has  now  been 
actually  commenced,  shall  be  occupied  until  this  has  been  done  for 
the  first  time. 

Sec.  103.  Roofs.  The  roof  of  every  teiement-house  shall  be  kept 
in  good  repair  and  so  as  not  to  leak,  and  all  rain  water  shall  be 
so  drained  and  conveyed  therefrom  as  to  prevent  its  dripping  on 
to  the  ground  or  causing  dampness  in  the  walls,  ceilings,  yards  or 
areas. 


252 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


Sec.  104.  Water-supply.  Every  tenement-house  shall  have  water 
furnished  in  sufficient  quantity  at  one  or  more  places  on  each  floor 
occupied  by  or  intended  to  be  occupied  by  one  or  more  families. 
The  OAvner  shall  provide  proper  and  suitable  tanks,  pumps  or  o  her 
appliances  to  receive  and  to  distribute  an  adequate  and  sulllcient 
supply  of  such  water  at  each  floor  in  the  said  house,  at  all  times 
of  the  year,  during  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night.  But  a  failure 
in  the  general  supply  of  water  by  the  city  authorities  shall  not  ba 
construed  to  be  a  failure  on  the  part  of  s^ich  owner,  provided  that 
proper  and  suitable  appliances  to  receive  and  distribute  such  water 
have  been  provided  in  said  house. 

Sec.  105.  Cleanliness  of  buildings.  Eveiy  tenement-house  and 
every  part  thereof  shall  be  kept  clean  and  fi'ee  from  any  accumu- 
lation- of  dirt,  filth  or  garbage,  or  other  matter  in  or  on  the  same,  or 
in  the  yards,  courts,  passages,  areas  or  alleys  connected  with  or 
belonging  to  the  same.  The  owner  of  every  tenement-house  or 
part  thereof  shall  thoroughly  cleanse  all  the  rooms,  pa-sages,  stairs, 
floors,  windows,  doors,  walls,  ceilings,  privies,  water-closets,  cess- 
pools, drains,  halls,  cellars,  roofs  and  all  other  parts  of  the  said 
tenement-house,  or  part  of  the  house  of  which  he  is  the  owner,  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  department  of  health,  and  shall  keep  the  said 
parts  of  the  said  tenement-hou^  e  in  a  cleanly  condition  at  all  tin  es 
No  person  shall  place  filth,  urine  or  fecal  matter  in  any  place  in 
a  tenement-house  other  than  that  provided  for  the  same,  or  ke 'p 
filth,  urine  or  fecal  matter  in  his  apartment  or  upon  his  premises 
such  length  of  time  as  to  create  a  nuisance. 

Sec.  106.  Shafts  and  courts.  In  every  tenement-house  there  shall 
be,  at  the  bottom  of  every  shaft  and  inner  court,  a  self-closing  fire- 
proof door  giving  sufficient  success  to  such  shaft  or  court  to  enabls 
it  to  be  properly  cleaned  out. 

Sec.  107.  Walls  of  courts  and  shafts.  The  walls  of  all  yard 
courts,  inner  courts  and  shafts,  unless  built  of  a  light  color  brick 
or  stone,  shall  be  thoroughly  whitewashed  by  thei  owner  <at  least 
once  in  three  years,  or  shall  be  painted  a  light  color  by  him  at 
least  once  in  five  years;  and  no  tenement-house  hereafter  erected, 
whether  or  not  it  has  now  been  actually  commenced,  shall  be  occu- 
pied until  this  has  been  done  for  the  first  time. 

Sec.  108.  Wall  paper.  No  wall  paper  shall  be  placed  upon  a  all 
or  ceiliAg  of  any  tenement-house  unless  all  wall  paper  shall  be  first 
removed  therefrom,  and  said  wall  and  ceiling  thoroughly  cleaned. 


TENEMBNT-HOUSE  LAW. 


253 


Sec.  109.  Receptacles  for  ashes,  garbage  and  refuse.  The  owner 
of  every  tenement-house  shall  provide  for  said  building  proper  and 
suitable  conveniences  or  receptacles  for  ashes,  rubbish,  garbage,  ref- 
use and  other  matter. 

Sec.  110.  Prohibited  uses.  No  horse,  cow,  calf,  swine,  sheep  or 
goat  shall  be  kept  in  a  tenement-house,  or  on  the  premises  thereof, 
and  no  tenement-house  shall  be  used  for  a  lodging-house  or  stable, 
or  for  the  storage  or  handling  of  rags. 

See.  111.  Janitor  or  housekeeper.  Whenever  there  shall  be  morj 
than  eight  families  living  in  any  tenement-house,  in  which  the 
owner  thereof  does  not  reside,  there  shall  be  a  janitor,  housekeeper 
or  some  other  responsible  person  who  shall  reside  in  said  house  anl 
have  charge  of  the  same,  if  the  department  of  health  shall  so  re- 
quire. 

Sec.  112.  Overcrowding.  Xo  room  in  any  tenement-house  shall 
-be  so  overcrowded  that  there  shall  be  afforded  less  than  four  hun- 
dred cubic  feet  of  air  to  each  adult,  and  two  hundred  cubic  feet 
of  air  to  each  child  under  twelve  years  of  age  occupying  such  room, 
and  no  apartment  in  any  tenement-house  shall  be  so  overcrowded 
that  there  shall  be  afforded  in  the  living  rooms  and  bedrooms  of 
said  apartment  less  than  six  hundred  cubic  feet  of  air  to  each  indi- 
vidual occupying  such  apartment. 

Sec.  113.  Space  around  pipes.  In  all  tenement-houses,  v/heie 
plumbing  or  other  pipes  pa-s  through  floors  or  partitions,  the  open- 
ings around  such  pipes  sliall  be  sealed  or  made  air-tight  with  plas- 
ter, or  other  incombustible  materials,  so  as  to  prevent  the  passage 
of  air  or  the  spread  of  fire  from  one  floor  to  another,  or  from 
room  to  room. 

CHAPTER  V. 

REMEDIES. 

Title  I. 
General  Poicers  and  Duties. 

Sec.  121.  Permit  to  commence  building.  Before  the  construction 
or  alteration  of  a  tenement-house,  or  the  alteration  or  conversion 
of  a  building  for  use  as  a  tenement-house,  is  commenced,  tie  owner, 
or  his  agent  or  architect,  shall  submit  to  the  department  charged 
with  the  enforcement  of  this  act  a  detailed  statement  in  writing, 
verified  by  the  person  making  the  same,  of  the  specifications  for  the 


254 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


construction  and  for  the  light  and  \cnlilation  of  Huch  tenement- 
house  or  building,  upon  a  blank  or  form  to  be  furnished  by  such 
department,  and  also  a  full  and  complete  copy  of  the  plans  of  such 
work.  Such  statement  shall  give  in  full  the  name  and  residence, 
by  street  and  number,  of  the  owner  or  owners  of  such  tenement- 
house  or  building.  If  such  construction,  alteration,  or  conversion, 
is  proposed  to  be  made  by  any  other  person  than  the  owner  of  the 
land  in  fee,  such  statement  shall  contain  the  full  name  and  resi- 
dence, by  street  and  number,  not  only  of  the  owner  of  the  land, 
but  of  every  person  interested  in  such  tenement-house,  either  as 
owner,  lessee  or  in  any  representative  capacity.  The  statements 
herein  provided  for  may  be  made  by  the  owner,  or  the  person  who 
proposes  to  make  the  construction,  alteration  or  conversion,  or  by 
his  agent  or  architect.  No  person,  however,  shall  be  recognized  as 
the  agent  of  the  owner,  unless  he  shall  file  with  the  said  department 
a  written  instrument,  signed  by  such  owner,  designating  him  as 
such  agent.  Such  specifications,  plans  and  statements  shall  be  filed 
in  the  said  department  and  shall  be  deemed  public  records,  but  no 
such  specifications,  plans  or  statements  shall  be  removed  from 
said  department.  The  said  department  shall  cause  all  such  plans 
and  specifications  to  be  examined.  If  such  plans  and  specifications 
conform  to  the  provisions  of  this  act  and  to  the  building  ordinances 
and  regulations,  they  shall  be  approved  by  such  department,  and 
a  written  certificate  to  that  effect  shall  be  issued  to  the  person 
submitting  the  same.  The  department  may,  from  time  to  time,  ap- 
prove changes  in  any  plans  and  specifications  previously  approved 
by  it;  provided  the  plans  and  specifications,  when  so  changed,  shall 
be  in  conformity  with  law.  The  construction,  alteration  or  conver 
sion  of  such  tenement-house  or  building,  or  any  part  thereof,  siiall 
not  be  commenced  until  the  filing  of  such  specifications,  plans  and 
statements,  and  the  approval  thereof,  as  above  provided. 

Sec.  122.  Certificate  of  compliance.  No  building  hereafter  con- 
structed as  or  altered  into  la  tenement-house  shall  be  occupied 
in  whole  or  in  part  for  human  habitation  until  the  issuance  of 
a.  certificate  by  the  department  aforesaid  that  said  building  con- 
forms in  all  respects  to  the  requirements  of  this  act.  Such  cer- 
tificate shall  be  issued  within  ten  days  after  written  applica  ion 
therefor,  if  said  building  at  the  date  of  such  applications  shall  ba 
entitled  thereto. 

Sec.  123,  Unlawful  occupation.    If  any  building  hereafter  con- 


TENEMENT-HOVSE  LAW. 


255 


stiucted  as  or  altered  into  a  tenenienl -house  be  occupied  iu  wJiole  or 
in  part  for  human  habitation  in  viclalion  of  the  1  if-t  section,  during 
such  unlawful  occupation  any  bond  or  note  necured  by  a  mortgage 
upon  said  building,  or  the  lot  upon  which  it  stands,  may  be  de- 
clared due  at  the  option  of  the  mortgagee.  Xo  rent  shall  be  recov- 
erable by  the  owner  or  lessee  of  suc'h  premises  for  said  period,  and 
no  action  or  special  proceeding  shall  be  maintained  therefor,  or  for 
possession  of  said  premises  for  non-payment  of  such  rent.  The  de- 
partment of  water-supply  shall  not  permit  water  to  be  furnished  in 
any  such  tenement-house,  and  said  premises  shall  be  deemed  unfit 
for  human  habitation,  and  the  department  of  health  shall  cause 
them  to  be  vacated  accordingly. 

Sec.  124.  Enforcement.  Except  as  herein  other-- ise  piovided.  ihe 
provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  enforced  by  the  departii.ent  rf  ;iny 
city  to  which  this  act  applies,  which  is  now  charged  with  the  en- 
forcement of  laws,  ordinances  and  regulations  relating  to  similar 
subject  matter  in  tenement-houses. 

Sec.  126.  Penalties  for  violations.  Every  person  who  shall  vio- 
late or  assist  in  the  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  act,  shall 
be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  ten 
days  for  each  and  every  day  that  such  violation  shall  continue, 
or  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  ten  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred 
dollars  if  the  offence  be  not  wilful,  or  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars  if  the  offence  be  wilful,  and  in  every  case  ot  ten  dollars 
for  each  day  after  the  first  that  such  violation  shall  continue,  or 
by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment  in  the  discretion  of  the  court; 
provided  that  the  punishment  for  a  violation  of  section  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-one  of  this  act  shall  be  a  fine  of  fifty  dollars;  and 
provided  further  that  the  penalty  for  encumbrance  of  a  fire-esca  e 
by  an  occupant  of  the  tenement-house  shall  be  a  fine  of  ten  dollars, 
Avhich  the  nearest  police  magistrate  shall  have  jurisdiction  to  im- 
pose. 

Sec.  127.  Violation  of  building  laws,  ordinances  and  regulations. 

Any  owner,  agent,  architect,  builder,  contractor,  sub-contractor  or 
foreman  who  shall,  in  the  construction  or  alteration  of  any  build- 
ing intended  to  be  used  as  a  tenement-house,  knowingly  violate 
any  of  the  piovisions  of  the  building  laws,  ordinances  or  regula- 
tions, shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

Sec.  128.  Procedure.  Except  as  herein  otherwise  specified,  the 
procedure  for  the  prevention  of  violations  of  this  act,  or  for  the 


256 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION, 


vacation  of  premises  unlawfully  occupied,  or  f  r  oi!  cr  ab.ilement 
of  nuisance  in  connection  willi  a  tenement-liouh  e,  shall  bo  as  set 
forth  in  charter  and  ordinances. 

Sec.  129.  Liens.  Every  fine  imposed  by  judgment  under  section 
one  hundred  and  twenty-six  of  this  act  upon  a  tenement-house 
owner  shall  be  a  lien  upon  the  house  in  relation  to  \\  hich  the  fine 
is  imposed  from  the  time  of  the  filing  of  a  certified  copy  of  said 
judgment  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  county  in  v  hich  ^aid  tene- 
ment-house is  situated,  subject  only  to  taxes,  assessments  and  water- 
lates,  and  to  such  mortgage  and  mechanics'  liens  as  may  exist 
thereon  prior  to  such  filing;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  depart- 
ment of  health,  upon  the  entry  of  said  judgment,  to  forthwith  file 
the  copy  as  aforesaid,  and  such  copy,  upon  such  filing,  shall  be 
forthwith  indexed  by  the  clerk  in  the  index  of  mechanics'  liens. 

Title  II. 

Registry  of  Names  mid  Service  of  Papers. 

Sec.  131.  Registry  of  owners'  names.  Every  owner  of  a  tene- 
ment-house and  every  lessee*  of  the  w^hole  house,  or  other  persons 
having  control  of  a  tenement-house,  shall  file  in  the  department 
of  health  a  notice  containing  his  name  and  address,  and  also  a 
description  of  the  property,  by  street  number  or  otherwise,  as  the 
case  may  be,  in  such  manner  as  will  enable  the  department  of 
health  easily  to  find  the  same;  and  also  the  number  of  apart- 
ments in  each  house,  the  number  of  rooms  in  each  apartment,  the 
number  of  families  occupying  the  apartments,  and  the  trades  or 
occupations  carried  on  therein.  In  case  of  a  transfer  of  any  tene- 
ment-house, it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  grantor  or  grantee  of 
said  tenement-house  to  file  in  the  department  of  health  a  notice 
of  such  transfer,  stating  the  name  of  the  new  owmer,  within  thirty 
days  after  such  transfer.  In  case  of  the  devolution  of  said  prop- 
erty by  will,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  executor  and  the  devisee, 
if  more  than  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  in  case  of  the  devolu- 
tion of  such  property  by  inheritance  without  a  will,  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  guardians  of  such  heirs,  and  in  case  said  heirs 
have  no  guardians,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  administrator  of 
the  deceased  owner  of  said  property  to  file  in  said  department  a 
notice,  stating  the  death  of  the  deceased  owner,  and  the  name  of 
those  who  have  succeeded  to  his  interest  in  said  property,  within 


TENEMENT-HOUSE  LAW, 


257 


thirty  days  after  the  death  of  the  decedent,  in  case  he  died  in- 
testate, and  within  thirty  days  after  the  probate  of  his  will,  if  he 
died  testate. 

See.  132.  Registry  of  agent's  name.  Every  owner,  agent,  or 
lessee  of  a  tenement-house  may  file  in  the  department  of  health 
a  notice  containing  the  name  and  address  of  an  agent  of  such 
house,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  service  of  process,  and  also 
a  description  of  the  property  by  street  number  or  otherwise,  as 
the  case  may  be,  in  such  manner  as  will  enable  the  department 
of  health  easily  to  find  the  same.  The  name  of  the  owner  or 
lessee  may  be  filed  as  agent  for  this  purpose. 

Sec.  133,  Service  of  notices  and  orders.  Every  notice  or  order 
in  relation  to  a  tenement-house  shall  be  served  five  days  before 
the  time  for  doing  the  thing  in  relation  to  which  it  shall  have 
been  issued.  The  posting  of  a  copy  of  such  notice  or  order  in  a 
conspicuous  place  in  the  tenement-house,  together  with  the  mail- 
ing of  a  copy  thereof,  on  the  same  day  that  it  is  posted,  to  each 
person,  if  any,  whose  name  has  been  filed  with  the  department  of 
health  in  accordance  with  the  pro\isions  of  sections  one  hundred 
and  thirty-one  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  of  this  act,  at 
his  address  as  therewith  filed,  shall  be  sufficient  service  thereof. 

Sec.  134.  Service  of  summons.  In  any  action  brought  by  any 
city  department  in  relation  to  a  tenement-house  for  injunction, 
vacation  of  the  premises,  or  other  abatement  of  nuisance,  or  to 
establish  a  lien  thereon^  it  shall  be  sufficient  service  of  the  sum- 
mons to  serve  the  same  as  notices  and  orders  are  served  under 
the  provisions  of  the  last  section;  provided,  that  if  the  address 
of  any  agent  whose  name  and  address  have  been  filed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  provisions  of  section  one  hundred  and  thirty-two 
of  this  act  is  in  the  city  in  which  the  tenement-house  is  situated, 
then  a  copy  of  the  summons  shall  also  be  delivered  at  such  ad- 
dress to  a  person  of  proper  age,  if  upon  reasonable  application 
admittance  can  be  obtained  and  such  person  found;  and  provided 
also,  that  personal  service  of  the  summons  upon  the  owner  of 
such  tenement-house  shall  be  sufficient  service  thereof  upon  him. 

Sec.  135.  Indexing  names.  The  names  and  addresses  filed  in 
accordance  with  sections  one  hundred  and  thirty-one  and  one 
hundred  and  thirty-two  shall  be  indexed  under  direction  of  the 
registrar  of  records  of  the  department  of  health,  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  all  of  those  filed  in  relation  to  each  tenement-house  shall 


258 


BANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


be  together,  and  readily  ascertainable.  The  board  of  health  shall 
provide  the  registrar  with  the  necessary  books  and  clerical  as- 
sistance for  that  purpose,  and  the  expense  thereof  shall  be  paid 
by  the  city.  Said  indexes  shall  be  public  records,  open  to  public 
inspection  during  business  hours. 

Title  III. 
Prostitution  in  Teyiement-houses. 

Sec.  141.  Vagrancy.  A  woman  who  knowingly  resides  in  or 
commits  prostitution  in  a  house  of  prostitution  or  assignation  of 
any  description  in  a  tenement-house,  or  solicits  any  man  or  boy 
to  enter  therein  for  purposes  of  prostitution,  shall  be  deemed  a 
vagrant,  and  upon  conviction  thereof  shall  be  committed  to  a 
county  jail  for  a  term  not  exceeding  six  months  from  the  date 
of  commitment.  The  procedure  in  such  case  shall  be  made  the 
same  as  that  provided  by  law  for  other  cases  of  vagrancy. 

Sec.  142.  Lien.  A  tenement-house  shall  be  subject  to  a  penalty 
of  one  thousand  dollars,  if  it  or  any  part  of  it  shall  be  used  for 
the  purpose  of  a  house  of  prostitution  or  assignation  of  any  de- 
scription, with  the  permission  of  the  owner  thereof,  or  his  agent, 
and  said  penalty  shall  be  a  lien  upon  the  house  and  the  lot  upon 
which  the  house  is  situated. 

Sec.  143.  Permission  of  lessee.  If  a  tenement-house,  or  any  part 
thereof,  shall  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  a  house  of  prostitution 
or  assignation  of  any  description  with  the  permission  of  the  lessee 
of  the  wliole  of  said  tenement-house,  or  his  agent,  the  lease  shall 
be  terminable  at  the  election  of  the  lessor.  And  the  owner  shall 
be  entitled  to  recover  possession  of  said  tenement-house  by  sum- 
mary proceedings  in  the  manner  provided  by  title  two  of  chapter 
seventeen  of  the  code  of  civil  procedure. 

Sec.  144.  Permission  of  owner.  A  tenement-house  shall  be 
deemed  to  have  been  used  for  the  purpose  specified  in  the  last  two 
sections  with  the  permission  of  tlie  owner  and  lessee  thereof,  if 
summary  proceedings  for  the  reu'oval  of  the  tenants  of  said  tene- 
ment-house or  of  so  much  thereof  as  is  unlawfully  used,  shall  not 
have  been  commenced  within  five  days  after  notice  of  such  un- 
lawful use,  served  by  the  department  of  health  in  the  manner  pre- 
scribed by  law  for  the  service  of  notices  and  orders  in  relation  to 
tenement-houses. 


II. 


TENEMENT-HOUSE  DEPARTMENT. 

(Extract  from  New  York  City  Charter.) 

1.  Organization  of  department;  officers  and  employees. 

2.  Powers  and  duties  of  department. 

3.  Records  and  reports;  miscellaneous  provisions. 

Organization  of  Department;  Bureaus;  Officers  and  Employees. 

See,  1326.  Department  created;  tenement-house  commissioner. 

The  head  of  the  tenement-house  department  shall  be  called  the 
tenement-house  commissioner.  He  shall  be  appointed  by  the 
mayor,  and  shall  hold  office  as  provided  in  chapter  four  of  this 
act.  His  salary  shall  be  seven  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  a 
year. 

Sec.  1327.  Deputy  commissioner.  The  commissioner  shall  have 
power  to  appoint  and,  in  his  discretion,  to  remove  not  more  than 
two  deputies,  to  be  known  as  first  deputy,  and  second  deputy, 
and  shall  define  their  duties.  The  first  deputy  shall  during  the 
absence  or  disability  of  the  commissioner  possess  all  the  powers 
and  perform  all  the  duties  of  the  commissioner  except  the  power 
of  making  appointments.  In  the  absence  or  disability  of  both 
the  commissioner  and  the  first  deputy,  the  second  deputy  shall 
possess  all  the  powers  and  perform  all  the  duties  of  the  commis- 
sioner, except  the  power  of  making  appointments. 

The  salaries  of  such  deputies  shall  be  four  thousand  dollars  a 
year  each. 

Sec.  1328.  Bureaus;  divisions  of  department  for  Brooklyn, 
Queens  and  Richmond.  There  shall  be  in  the  tenement-house  de- 
partment, (1)  a  new  building  bureau;  (2)  an  inspection  bureau; 
(3)  a  bureau  of  records;  and  such  other  bureaus  as  the  commis- 
sioner may  deem  necessary. 

A  separate  division  of  the  department  may  be  established  in  the 
borough  of  Brooklyn,  with  jurisdiction  over  tenement-houses  in 
the  borough  of  Brooklyn,  and  also  in  the  discretion  of  the  commis- 
sioner over  tenement-houses  in  the  boroughs  of  Queens  or  Rich 
mond,  or  both.    The  commissioner  may  designate  the  deputy  com- 

259 


260 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


missioner  or  some  other  officer  of  the  department  as  the  executive 
head  of  such  division,  who  shall  perform  such  duties  and  possess 
such  powers  as  may  be  delegated  to  him  by  the  commissioner.  A 
branch  of  each  of  the  bureaus  above  specified  may  be  established 
in  such  division. 

Sec.  1329.  Officers  and  employees.  The  tenement-house  com- 
missioner, within  the  limits  of  his  appropriation,  shall  have  power 
to  appoint  and  remove,  subject  to  the  requirements  of  the  civil- 
service  laws,  such  subordinate  officers,  assistants  and  employees 
as  may  be  necessary  for  the  efficient  performance  of  his  duties  as 
said  commissioner. 

In  the  new  building  bureau  there  shall  be  no  less  than  three 
plan  examiners  and  not  less  than  sixteen  inspectors  of  light  and 
ventilation.  In  the  inspection  bureau  there  shall  be  not  less  than 
one  hundred  and  ninety  inspectors,  including  such  i>ersons  as  may 
be  detailed  by  the  police  commissioner  for  service  in  the  tenement- 
house  department.  The  commissioner  shall  appoint  a  chief  in- 
spector and  deputy  chief  inspector  over  such  bureau.  In  the  other 
bureaus  there  shall  be  such  registrars,  clerks  and  employees  as  are 
necessary  to  perform  the  duties  thereof. 

All  such  officers  and  employees  shall  be  subject  to  the  super- 
vision and  control  of  the  commissioner,  and  shall  perform  such 
duties  as  are  assigned  by  him.  Such  commissioner  may  make 
regulations  governing  each  such  bureau,  and  branch  thereof,  not 
inconsistent  with  law. 

Sec.  1330.  Duties  of  bureaus.  The  new  building  bureau  shall 
file,  record  and  examine  plans  and  specifications  for  the  light  and 
ventilation  of  tenement-houses  hereafter  altered  or  erected,  and 
of  buildings  to  be  altered  or  reconstructed  for  use  as  tenement- 
houses.  It  shall  inspect  all  such  houses  and  buildings  in  the 
coui'se  of  construction  or  alteration,  and  record  all  violations  of 
the  tenement-house  act  in  respect  thereto. 

The  inspection  bureau  shaU  inspect  all  completed  tenement- 
houses,  and  record  all  violations  of  the  tenement-house  laws  and 
ordinances.  The  commissioner  shall  prescribe  the  duties  of  the 
inspectors  connected  with  such  bureau,  and  may  assign  them  to 
such  part  of  the  city  as  he  may  deem  best. 

The  bureau  of  records  shall  contain  records  of  every  tenement- 
house  in  the  city,  to  be  kept  in  the  manner  and  form  prescribed 
bv  the  commissioner. 


TENEMENT-HOUSE  DEPARTMENT.  261 


Such  other  bureaus  as  may  be  organized  by  the  commissioner 
ehall  perform  the  duties  prescribed  by  him,  and  he  may  assign 
thereto  sucli  employees  as  may  be  necessary- 
Sec.  1331.  Offices  and  expenses.  The  commissioner  may  provide 
offices  for  the  use  of  the  department,  its  bureaus  and  the  branches 
thereof.  Such  commissioner  may,  subject  to  the  other  provisions 
of  this  act,  make  such  incidental  and  additional  expenditures, 
having  due  regard  to  economy,  as  the  purposes  and  provisions  of 
this  chapter  may  require.  He  may  provide  that  the  failure  of  an 
inspector,  officer  or  employee  of  the  department  to  properly  per- 
form his  duty  shall  cause  a  forfeiture  of  the  whole  or  any  part 
of  the  salary  or  compensation  of  such  inspector,  officer  or  em- 
ployee. 

Sec.  1332.  Seal.  The  commissioner  may  design  and  adopt  a  seal 
for  the  department,  and  cause  the  same  to  be  used  in  the  authenti- 
cation of  the  orders  and  proceedings  of  the  department,  and  for 
such  other  purposes  as  he  may  prescribe.  The  courts  shall  take 
judicial  notice  of  such  seal^  and  of  the  signature  of  the  commis- 
sioner and  deputy  commissioner  of  such  department. 

See.  1333.  Annual  report.  The  commissioner  shall  make  an  an- 
Hual  report  at  some  time  prior  to  the  first  day  of  March  of  each 
year  to  the  mayor  of  The  City  of  New  York  of  all  the  operations 
of  his  department  for  the  year  ending  on  the  preceding  thirty-first 
day  of  December.  Such  report  shall,  if  ordered  by  the  mayor, 
be  published  in  the  City  Record,  and  shall  also  be  published  in 
book  form  for  public  information.  The  mayor  may,  at  any  time, 
call  for  a  fuller  report,  or  for  a  report  upon  any  portion  of  the 
work  of  said  department,  whenever  he  deems  it  for  the  public 
good  so  to  do. 

Sec.  1334.  Publication  of  statistics  and  other  data.  The  com- 
missioner may  provide  for  the  publicity  of  the  papers,  files,  re- 
ports, records  and  the  proceedings  of  his  department,  whenever 
he  deems  it  necessary  for  the  public  good  and  public  service. 
There  shall  be  kept  in  such  department  statistics  of  all  tenement- 
houses,  which  shall  be  contained  in  the  annual  report  of  such 
department. 

Sec.  1335.  Uniforms  and  badges.  The  commissioner  may  pro- 
vide or  designate  a  .suitable  uniform  to  be  worn  by  inspectors. 
He  may  also  provide  a  badge  of  metal,  with  a  suitable  inscription 


262 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


thereon,  and  require  it  to  be  worn  by  the  inspectors  and  officers 
of  the  department. 

Sec.  1336.  Reports  of  inspectors.  Each  of  such  inspectors  shall 
report  in  writing,  at  least  once  in  each  week,  to  the  commissioner. 
The  form,  manner  and  scope  of  such  reports  shall  be  prescribed  by 
the  commissioner.    Such  reports  shall  be  filed  in  the  department. 

Sec.  1337.  Proofs,  affidavits  and  oaths.  Proofs,  affidavits  and 
examinations  as  to  any  matter  arising  in  connection  with  the 
perfonnance  of  any  of  the  duties  of  the  tenement-house  depart- 
ment may  be  taken  by  or  before  the  tenement-house  commissioner, 
or  his  deputy,  or  such  other  person  as  he  may  designate;  and 
such  commissioner,  deputy  or  other  person  may  administer  oath^i 
in  connection  therewith. 

Sec.  1338.  Complaint  book.  The  commissioner  shall  cause  to  be 
kept  in  his  department  a  general  complaint  book,  or  several  such 
books,  in  which  may  be  entered  by  any  person  any  complaint  in 
reference  to  tenement-houses,  with  the  name  and  residence  of  the 
complainant,  the  name  of  the  person  complained  of,  the  date  of 
the  entry  of  the  complaint  and  suggestions  of  any  proper  remedy. 
Such  book  shall  be  open  to  public  examination  during  the  office 
hours  of  the  department,  subject  to  such  regulations  as  the  com- 
missioner may  prescribe.  The  tenement-house  commissioner  shall 
cause  the  facts  in  regard  to  all  complaints  to  be  investigated. 

Sec.  1339.  Attorneys.  The  corporation  counsel  shall  assign  to 
such  department  such  assistant  counsel  as  may  be  needful,  in  the 
manner  provided  by  chapter  seven  of  this  act. 

Powers  and  Duties  of  Department. 

Sec.  1340.  General  powers  and  duties.  All  the  rights  and  pow- 
ers possessed  by  the  health  department  of  The  City  of  New  York 
with  respect  to  the  sanitary  inspection  of  tenement-houses  are 
hereby  conferred  upon  the  tenement-house  department;  and  the 
tenement-house  department  is  hereby  charged  with  the  duty  of 
enforcing  all  the  provisions  of  the  tenement-house  act,  except  that 
sections  eleven  to  twenty-eight,  inclusive,  and  sections  thirty- 
three,  thirty-four,  thirty-seven,  thirty-eight  and  thirty-nine  of 
said  act  shall  be  enforced  by  the  bureaus  of  buildings  of  their 
respective  boroughs.  The  names  of  owners,  lessees  and  agents,  and 
persons  having  control  of  tenement -houses,  shall  be  filed  in,  and 


TENEMEXT-HO  USE  DEPARTMENT. 


263 


the  taxpayers'  request  for  the  institution  of  an  action  for  a  lien 
upon  a  tenement-house  shall  be  presented  to,  the  tenement-house 
department  instead  of  to  the  department  of  health.  Nothing 
herein  contained  shall  abrogate  or  impair  the  existing  powers  of 
the  department  of  health  of  The  City  of  New  York.  The  tene- 
ment-house department  shall  have  the  powers  and  shall  perform 
the  duties  specified  in  this  chapter. 

Sec.  1341.  Transfer  of  powers  of  other  departments.  Such 
rights,  powers  and  duties  as  are  now  possessed  by  the  fire  depart- 
ment and  police  department  of  The  City  of  New  York  with  re- 
spect to  the  prevention  of  encumbrance  or  obstruction  of  fire- 
escapes  on  tenement-houses  are  hereby  transferred  to  and  con- 
ferred upon  the  tenement-house  department.  All  rights,  powers 
and  duties  now  possessed  by  the  department  of  buildings  and  the 
department  of  health  of  The  City  of  New  York  with  respect  to 
the  light  and  ventilation  of  tenement-houses,  and  with  respect  to 
the  equipment  of  completed  tenement-houses  with  fire-escapes,  are 
transferred  to  and  conferred  upon  the  tenement-house  department. 

Sec.  1342.  Approval  of  plans  and  specifications  for  light  and 
ventilation.  Before  the  construction  or  alteration  of  a  tenement- 
house,  or  the  alteration  or  conversion  of  a  building  for  use  as  a 
tenement-house,  is  commenced,  the  owner,  or  his  agent  or  architect, 
shall  submit  to  the  tenement-house  department  a  detailed  state- 
ment in  writing,  verified  by  the  person  making  the  same,  of  the 
specifications  for  the  light  and  ventilation  of  such  tenement-house 
or  building,  upon  a  blank  or  form  to  be  furnished  by  such  depart- 
ment, and  also  a  full  and  complete  copy  of  the  plans  of  such 
work.  Such  statement  shall  give  in  full  the  name  and  residence, 
by  street  and  number,  of  the  owner  or  owners  of  such  tenement- 
house  or  building.  If  such  construction,  alteration,  or  conversion, 
is  proposed  to  be  made  by  any  other  person  than  the  owner  of 
the  land  in  fee,  such  statement  shall  contain  the  full  name  and 
residence,  by  street  and  number,  not  only  of  the  owner  of  the 
land,  but  of  every  person  interested  in  such  tenement-house,  either 
as  owner,  lessee  or  in  any  representative  capacity.  The  state- 
ments herein  provided  for  may  be  made  by  the  owner,  or  the 
person  who  proposes  to  make  the  construction,  alteration  or  con- 
version, or  by  his  agent  or  architect.  No  person,  however,  shall 
be  recognized  as  the  agent  of  the  owner,  unless  he  shall  file  with 
the  tenement- house  department  a  written  instrument,  signed  by 


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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


>"<uch  o\\ner,  designating  him  as  such  agent.  Such  specifications, 
plans  and  statements  sliall  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  tenement- 
house  department  and  shall  be  deemed  public  records,  but  no  such 
specifications,  plans  or  statements  shall  be  removed  from  said  de- 
partment. 

The  commissioner  shall  cause  all  such  plans  and  specifications 
to  be  examined.  If  such  plans  and  specifications  conform  to  the 
provisions  of  the  tenement-house  act,  they  shall  be  approved  by 
such  commissioner,  and  a  written  certificate  to  that  effect  shall  be 
issued  to  the  person  submitting  the  same.  The  commissioner  may, 
from  time  to  time,  approve  changes  in  any  plans  and  specifica- 
tions previously  approved  by  him,  provided  the  plans  and  specifi- 
cations when  so  changed  shall  be  in  conformity  with  law. 

The  construction,  alteration  or  conversion  of  such  tenement- 
house  or  building,  or  any  part  thereof,  shall  not  be  commenced 
until  the  filing  of  such  specifications,  plans  and  statements,  and  the 
approval  thereof  by  the  tenement-house  commissioner,  as  above 
provided. 

No  permit  shall  be  granted  and  no  plan  approved  by  the  bureau 
of  buildings  of  any  borough  of  The  City  of  New  York  for  the  con- 
struction or  alteration  of  a  tenement-house,  or  for  the  alteration 
or  conversion  of  any  building  for  use  as  a  tenement-house,  until 
there  has  been  filed  in  such  bureau  of  buildings  a  certificate  of 
the  tenement-house  commissioner,  issued  as  above  provided. 

Sec.  1343.  Inspection  of  tenement-houses  in  course  of  construc- 
tion. The  commissioner  shall  cause  an  inspection  and  examination 
to  be  made  of  all  tenement-houses  in  the  course  of  construction  or 
alteration,  and  also  of  all  buildings  in  coui-se  of  alteration  or 
conversion  for  use  as  tenement-houses,  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining whether  such  tenement-houses  or  buildings  are  being  con- 
structed, altered  and  converted  in  conformity  with  the  law,  and 
the  plans  and  specifications  on  file  in  the  office  of  the  department, 
and  approved  by  the  commissioner. 

Sec.  1344.  Certificate  of  owner  of  tenement-house  hereafter 
erected  or  altered.  No  building  hereafter  constructed  as  or  altered 
into  a  tenement-house  shall  be  occupied  in  whole  or  in  part  for 
human  habitation,  until  the  issuance  of  a  certificate  by  the  tene 
ment-house  commissioner  that  said  building  conforms  in  all  re- 
spects to  the  provisions  of  the  tenement-house  act  not  excepted  in 
section  thirteen  huftdred  and  forty  of  this  act  ;  and  of  .\  certificate 


TENEMENT  HO  USE  DEPARTMENT. 


205 


by  the  siiperiiiteiident  of  buildings  of  the  br  rough  in  which  the 
building  is  situated  that  the  building  conforms  in  all  respects  to 
the  requirements  of  said  excepted  sections.  Such  certificates  shall 
be  issued  Avithin  ten  days  after  written  application  therefor,  if  said 
building  at  the  date  of  such  application  shall  be  entitled  thereto. 
If  any  building  hereafter  constructed  as  or  altered  into  a  tenement- 
house  be  occupied  in  whole  or  in  part  for  human  habitation  with- 
out such  certificates,  during  such  unlawful  occupation  any  bond 
or  note  secured  by  a  mortgage  upon  said  building,  or  the  lot  upon 
which  it  stands,  may  be  declared  due  at  the  option  of  the  mort- 
gagee. No  rent  shall  *be  recoverable  by  the  owner  or  lessee  of 
such  premises  for  said  period,  and  no  action  or  special  proceeding 
shall  be  maintained  therefor,  or  for  possession  of  said  premises  for 
non-payment  of  such  rent.  The  department  of  water-supply  shall 
not  permit  water  to  be  furnislied  in  any  such  tenement-house,  and 
said  premises  shall  be  deemed  unfit  for  human  habitation,  and  the 
tenement-house  commissioner  shall  cause  them  to  be  vacated  ac- 
cordingly. 

Sec.  1344a.  Inspection  of  completed  tenement-houses.  Except 
as  hereinafter  otherwise  provided,  the  tenement-house  commissioner 
shall  cause  an  inspection  of  every  completed  tenen.ent-house  in 
the  city  to  be  made  at  least  once  in  each  month.  Such  inspection 
shall  include  examination  of  cellars,  halls,  water-closets,  privies, 
plumbing,  yards,  areas,  fire-escapes,  roofs,  shafts,  courts,  tanks  and 
all  other  parts  of  such  tenement-houses  and  the  premises  connected 
therewith.  In  tenement-houses  where  the  average  rental  of  the 
apartments  therein  is  twenty-five  dollars  a  month  or  more,  such  in 
spection  may  be  made  less  often  than  once  a  month,  as  above  pro- 
vided, in  the  discretion  of  the  tenement-house  commissioner.  The 
tenement-house  commissioner  shall  prescribe  the  manner  in  which 
such  inspections  shall  be  made. 

The  inspectors  shall  immediately  report  to  the  tenement-house 
department  all  violations  of  the  tenement-house  act,  and  the  ten- 
ement-house commissioner  shall  issue  such  orders  as  he  may  deem 
necessary  requiring  the  removal  of  the  defect  or  the  cessation  of 
the  act  which  is  in  violation  of  such  law. 

Sec.  1344b.  Injunctions,  when  to  be  granted  against  the  depart- 
ment. No  preliminary  injunction  shall  be  granted  against  the  ten- 
ement-house department  or  its  officers  except  by  the  supreme  court, 
at  a  special  term  thereof,  after  service  of  at  least  five  days'  notice 


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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION, 


ot  the  motion  for  such  injunction,  together  with  copies  of  the  pa- 
pers upon  which  the  motion  for  such  injunction  is  to  be  made. 
Whenever  such  department  shall  seek  any  provisional  remedy  or 
shall  prosecute  an  appeal,  it  shall  not  be  necessary,  before  obtain- 
ing or  prosecuting  the  same,  to  give  an  undertaking. 

See.  1344c.  Power  of  attorney  for  the  department.  The  couns  1 
assigned  by  the  corporation  counsel  to  the  tenement-iicuse  dep  r 
ment  shall  sue  for  and  collect  all  penalties,  and  take  charge  of  an 
conduct  all  legal  proceedings  imposed  or  provided  by  this  chapte. 
or  by  the  tenement-house  act,  and  all  other  tenement-house  laws, 
regulations  and  ordinances.  All  suits  or  pi'oceedings  instituted  for 
the  enforcement  of  the  several  provisions  of  this  chapter,  or  for 
the  recovery  of  penalties  imposed  by  the  tenement-house  act,  shall 
be  brought  in  the  name  of  the  tenement-house  department  of  The 
City  of  New  \ork,  by  such  counsel.  The  penalties  recovered  shall 
be  paid  to  such  counsel.  He  shall,  on  the  first  of  each  month, 
render  to  the  commissioner  an  itemized  statement  of  all  moneys 
collected  by  him,  and  pay  over  the  same  to  the  tenement-house 
commissioner.  He  shall  at  the  same  time  render  a  statement  of 
the  necessary  disbursements  incurred  or  paid  in  the  prosecution 
or  the  actions  and  proceedings  instituted  by  him.  The  tenement- 
house  commissioner  shall  pay  montlily  tl  e  amount  of  such  moneys 
so  collected  to  the  comptroller  of  The  City  of  New  York. 

Sec.  1344d.  No  personal  liability.  An  officer  or  employee  of  the 
tenement-house  department  shall  not  be  liable  for  acts  done  by 
him  in  good  faith,  in  the  performance  of  his  official  duties,  pursu- 
ant to  the  direction  of  the  commissioner  or  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions of  the  department.  Any  person  whose  property  has  been 
unjustly  or  illegally  destroyed  or  injured  pursuant  to  the  order, 
regulation  or  ordinance  of  such  tenement-house  department,  or  its 
officers  or  employees,  for  which  no  personal  liability  exists  as  afore- 
said, may  maintain  a  proper  action  against  the  city  for  the  recov- 
ery of  the  proper  compensation  or  damage.  Every  such  suit  shall 
be  brought  Avithin  six  months  after  the  cause  of  action  arose,  and 
the  recovery  shall  be  limited  to  the  damages  suffered. 

Sec.  1344e.  Right  of  entry  of  officers  of  department.  The  tene- 
ment-house commissioner  and  his  deputies  and  all  inspectors  of 
the  tenement-house  department,  and  such  other  persons  as  are  au- 
thorized by  the  commissioner,  may  without  fee  or  hindrance  enter, 
examine  and  survey  all  premises,  grounds,  erections,  structures. 


TENEMENT-IIO  USE  DEPARTMENT. 


2G7 


apartments,  buildings  and  every  part  thereof  in  the  city,  and  all 
cellars  and  passages  of  every  sort,  and  inspect  the  safety  and  sani- 
tary condition,  and  make  plans,  drawings  and  descriptions  thereof, 
according  to  the  regulations  of  the  department.  The  owner  or  his 
agent  or  representative,  and  the  lessee  or  occupant  of  every  tene- 
ment-house or  part  thereof^  and  every  person  having  the  care  and 
management  thereof,  shall  at  all  times,  when  required  by  any  of 
such  officers  or  persons,  give  them  free  access  to  such  house  and 
every  part  thereof. 

Sec.  1344f.  Punishment  for  false  returns  and  deceptive  reports. 
Any  inspector,  officer  or  employee  of  such  tenement-house  depart- 
ment who  shall  knowingly  make  thereto  a  false  or  deceptive  report 
or  statement  in  connection  with  his  duties,  or  shall  accept  or  re- 
ceive any  bribe  or  other  compensation  as  a  condition  of  or  an  in- 
ducement for  not  faithfully  discovering  or  fully  reporting  or 
otherwise  acting  in  accordance  with  his  duty  in  any  respect,  or 
shall  accept  or  receive  any  gratuity  from  any  person  whose  interests 
may  be  affected  by  his  official  action,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misde- 
meanor and  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  not  more  than  one 
year  and  by  a  fine  of  not  more  than  five  hundred  dollars.  If  such 
officer,  inspector  or  employee  be  convicted  of  such  offence,  he  shall 
forfeit  his  office,  and  in  addition  all  compensation  due  or  to  be- 
come due  from  such  department. 

Sec.  1344g.  Falsely  personating  an  officer.  If  any  person,  not 
an  officer,  inspector  or  employee  of  such  department,  or  acting 
under  the  authority  thereof,  falsely  represents  himself  as  such,  or 
if  any  such  person  shall  use,  wear  or  display,  without  authority, 
any  shield  or  other  insignia  or  emblem  such  as  is  worn  by  sucli  an 
officer,  inspector  or  employee,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdeme.'nor. 

Sec.  1344h.  Application  of  provisions  of  chapter  nineteen.  The 
provisions  of  chapter  nineteen  of  this  charter,  relative  to  the  de- 
partment of  health,  which  provide: 

1.  For  the  repair  of  buildings. 

2.  For  proceedings  relative  to  dangerous  and  improperly  con- 
structed buildings. 

3.  For  assistance  and  co-operation  of  the  police  department. 

4.  Punishment  for  violations  of  orders  and  the  service  of  such 
orders. 

5.  For  legal  proceedings  and  punishment  for  disobedience  of  or- 
ders and  ordinances. 


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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


G.  For  reimburfcomc'iits  and  lien  cf  t•xpeu^e^^  incurred  by  such  de- 
partment in  the  execution  of  its  orders  as  contained  in  title  five 
thereof. 

7.  For  buits  for  the  abatement  or  removal  of  nuisances,  and 
for  proceedings,  and  the  jjowers  and  duties  of  such  department 
in  respect  to  such  nuisances,  and  the  definition  of  the  word 
"  nuisance  and  other  matters  in  respect  thereto,  shall  apply  to 
the  supervision  and  regulation  of  tenement-houses  by  the  tene- 
ment-house department,  its  officers,  agents  and  employees,  unlesns 
otherwise  specified  in.  or  inconsistent  with,  the  provisions  of  this 
chapter. 

Records  and  Reports  ;  Miscellaueons  Provisions, 

Sec.  1344i.  Records  in  department.  The  tenement-house  com- 
missioner shall  provide  a  system  for  keeping  the  records  of  tene- 
ment-houses by  card  catalogue  and  street  number,  or  otherwise. 
Such  records  shall  include  : 

1.  A  diagram  of  each  tenement-house,  showing  the  shape  of  the 
building,  its  width  and  depth,  also  the  measurements  of  the  un- 
occupied area,  showing  shafts,  courts,  yards  and  other  open  spaces. 
Such  diagram  shaU  include  a  diagram  of  the  second  or  typical  floor 
of  the  building,  showing  the  sizes  and  arrangement  of  the  rooms, 
and  all  doors,  stairs,  windows,  halls  and  partitions. 

2.  A  statement  of  the  date  or  the  approximate  date  when  the 
building  was  erected. 

3.  The  deaths  occurring  in  the  tenement-house  during  each  year 
and  the  annual  death-rate  therein.  Such  statement  shall  show 
whether  such  deaths  were  of  adults  or  children,  and,  if  oeca.siored 
by  tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever,  diptheria,  scarlet  fever,  smallpox, 
measles,  or  by  any  other  contag-ious  or  infectious  disease,  it  shall 
state  the  disease  causing  death. 

^  4.  The  cases  of  sickness  occumng  in  the  tenement-house  and  the 
nature  of  the  disease.  Such  record  shall  also  show  whether  such 
cases  of  sickness  were  of  children  or  adults, 

5,  The  aiTest  of  persons  residing  in  the  tenement-house. 
Sec.  1344j,  Reports  from  different  institutions  and  departments. 
All  dispensaries  and  hospitals  in  The  City  of  New  York  shall  make 
weekly  statements  to  the  tenement-house  department  as  to  the 
cases  of  sickness  received  in  such  hospital  or  treated  in  such  dis- 
pensary from  each  tenement-house.    Such  statement  shall  show 


TENEMENT- no  USE  DEPARTMENT. 


269 


the  lcK.'ation  of  the  tenement-house,  by  street  and  number,  from 
which  the  case  was  receivo<l,  and  the  nature  of  the  sickness  treated, 
whether  the  patient  was  an  adult  or  child  and  the  date  of  the 
treatment. 

The  police  department  of  The  City  of  New  York  shall  furnish  to 
the  tenement-house  department  a  weekly  statement  of  the  number 
of  arrests  of  persons  living  in  tenement-houses,  whicli  shall  sho"\v 
the  location  of  the  tenement-house,  by  street  and  number,  the  of- 
fence with  which  the  person  is  charged,  the  age  and  name  of  the 
offender,  and  such  other  information  as  the  tenement-house  de- 
partment may  require.  The  tenement-house  commissioner  shall 
prescribe  and  furnish  blank  forms  for  making  such  statements. 

Sec.  1344k.  Other  reports  to  the  department.  Such  department 
may  require  reports  and  information  of  such  facts  relative  to  the 
condition  of  persons  residing  in  tenement-houses,  as  the  commis- 
sioner may  deem  to  be  useful  in  carrying  out  the  purposes  of  this 
chapter  and  the  tenement-house  laws,  regulations  and  ordinances, 
from  all  dispensaries,  hospitals,  charitable  or  benevolent  societies, 
infirmaries,  prisons  and  schools,  and  from  the  managers,  princi- 
pals and  officers  thereof;  the  managers,  principals  and  officers  of 
such  institutions  shall  promptly  give  such  information  and  make 
such  reports,  verbal  or  in  writing,  as  may  be  required  by  the  com- 
missioner. 

Sec.  1344n.  Details  of  men  to  assist  tenement-house  depart- 
ment. The  police  commissioner,  upon  the  requisition  of  the  tene- 
ment-house commissioner,  shall  detail  to  the  service  of  said  tene- 
ment-house department,  for  the  purpose  of  the  enforcement  of  the 
acts  relating  to  tenement-houses,  suitable  officers  and  men  of  ex- 
perience of  at  least  five  years'  service  in  the  police  force;  provided, 
that  the  number  of  officers  and  men  so  detailed  shall  not  at  any 
time  exceed  one  hundred;  and  provided  further,  that  the  tene- 
ment-house department  shall  pay  monthly  to  the  police  depart- 
ment a  sum  equal  to  the  pay  of  all  officers  and  men  so  detailed. 
These  officers  and  men  shall  belong  to  the  sanitary  company  of 
police,  and  shall  report  to  the  tenement-house  commissioner.  In 
making  such  detail  the  police  commissioner  shall  give  preference 
to  those  officers  and  men  who  have  belonged  for  not  less  than  five 
years  to  the  sanitary  company  of  the  police  assigned  to  the  depart- 
ment of  health.  All  other  officers  and  men  so  detailed  shall,  when 
ever  the  tenement-house  commissioner  so  requests,  be  selected 


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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


from  those  \\lio  have  passed  a.  competitive  civil-service  examinar 
tion  for  their  qualification  for  this  service.  The  tenement-house 
commissioner  may  report  back  to  the  police  department  for  pun- 
ishment any  member  of  said  company  guilty  of  any  breach  of  or- 
der or  discipline,  or  of  neglecting  his  duty,  and  thereupon  the  po- 
lice commissioner  shall  detail  another  officer  or  man  in  his  place, 
and  the  discipline  of  the  members  of  the  sanitary  company  shall  be 
in  the  jurisdiction  of  the  police  department,  but  at  any  time  tlij 
tenement-house  commissioner  may  object  to  any  member  of  said 
sanitary  company  on  the  ground  of  inefficiency,  and  thereupon  an- 
other officer  or  man  shall  be  detailed  in  his  place. 


m. 


RULES  AND  REGULATIONS  FOR  PLUMBING,  DRAIN- 
AGE, WATER-SUPPLY  AND  VENTILATION  OF 
BUILDINGS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  BUILDINGS 
OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 

I. 

Definition  of  Terms. 

1.  The  term  "  private  sewer  "  is  applied  to  main  sewers  that  are 
not  constructed  by  and  under  the  supervision  of  the  department 
of  sewers. 

2.  The  term  "  house-sewer  "  is  applied  to  that  part  of  the  main 
drain  or  sewer  extending  from  a  point  two  feet  outside  of  the  outer 
wall  of  the  building,  vault  or  area,  to  its  connection  with  public 
sewer,  private  sewer  or  cesspool. 

3.  The  term  "  house-drain  "  is  applied  to  that  part  of  the  main 
horizontal  drain  and  its  branches  inside  the  walls  of  the  building, 
vault  or  area,  and  extending  to  and  connecting  with  the  house- 
sewer. 

4.  The  term  "  soil-pipe  is  applied  to  any  vertical  line  of  pipe 
extending  through  roof,  receiving  the  discharge  of  one  or  more 
water-closets,  with  or  without  other  fixtures. 

5.  The  term  "  waste-pipe "  is  applied  to  any  pipe,  extending 
through  roofj  receiving  the  discharge  from  any  fixtures  except 
water-closets. 

6.  The  term  "  vent-pipe  "  is  applied  to  any  special  pipe  provided 
to  ventilate  the  system  of  piping  and  to  prevent  trap  siphonage 
and  back  pressure. 

II. 

Materials  and  Workmanship. 

7.  All  materials  must  be  of  the  best  quality,  free  from  defects, 
and  all  work  must  be  executed  in  a  thorough,  workmanlike 
manner. 

8.  All  cast-iron  pipes  and  fittings  must  be  uncoated,  sound, 
cylindrical  and  smooth,  free  from  cracks,  sand  holes  and  other  de- 

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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 

fects,  and  of  uniform  thickness  and  of  the  grade  known  in  com- 
merce as  "  extra  heavy." 

9.  Pipe,  including  the  Imb,  shall  weigh  not  less  than  the  follow- 
ing average  weights  per  linear  foot: 

Weights  Per 

Diameters.  -Lm^zr  Foot. 

2  inches   5^  pounds. 

3  "    9i  " 

4  "   .13 

5  "    17 

6  "    20 

'7     "    27 

8     "    33*  " 

10     "    45 

12     "    54 


10.  The  size,  weight  and  maker's  name  must  be  cast  on  each 
length  of  the  pipe. 

11.  All  joints  must  be  made  with  picked  oakum  and  molten  lead 
and  be  made  gas-tight.  Twelve  (12)  ounces  of  fine,  soft  pig  lead 
must  be  used  at  each  joint  for  each  inch  in  the  diameter  of  the 
pipe. 

12.  All  WTOught-iron  and  steel  pipes  must  be  equal  in  quality  to 
"  standard,"  and  must  be  properly  tested  by  the  manufacturer. 
All  pipe  must  be  lap-welded.  Xo  plain  black  or  uncoated  pip? 
will  be  permitted. 

13.  Wrought-iron  and  steel  pipes  must  be  galvanized,  and  each 
length  must  have  the  weight  and  maker's  name  stamped  on  it. 

14.  Fittings  for  vent-pipes  on  wrought-iron  and  steel  pipes  may 
be  the  ordinary  cast  or  malleable  steam  and  water  fittings. 

15.  Fittings  for  waste  or  soil  and  refrigerator  waste-pipes  must 
be  the  special  extra  heavy  cast-iron  recessed  and  threaded  drainage 
fittings  with  smooth  interior  water-way  and  threads  tapped,  so  as 
to  give  a  unifoiTn  grade  to  branches  of  not  less  than  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  per  foot.  All  fittings  for  wrought-iron  or  steel  pipe  must 
be  galvanized. 

16.  All  joints  to  be  screwed  joints  made  up  with  red  lead,  and 
the  burr  formed  in  cutting  must  be  carefully  reamed  out. 

17.  Short  nipples  on  wrought-iron  or  steel  pipe,  where  the  un- 
threaded part  of  the  pipe  is  less  than  one  and  one-half  inches  long. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  PLUMBING. 


273 


mu.st  be  of  the  tliicknesii  and  weight  known  as  "  extra  heavy  "  or 
"  extra  strong." 

18.  The  pipe  .shall  not  be  loss  than  the  following  average  thick- 
ness and  weight  per  linear  foot: 

Weights  Per 

Diameters. 


2 

2^ 

3 

3i 

4 

4i 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 


Thicknesses. 

Linear 

Foot. 

.14  inches. 

2.68  pounds. 

.15  " 

3.61 

.20  " 

5.74 

.21  " 

7.54 

.22 

9.00 

<( 

.23  " 

10.66 

« 

.24  " 

12.34 

it 

.25  " 

14.50 

(( 

.28  " 

18.76 

(( 

.30  " 

23.27 

i( 

.32  " 

28.18 

(( 

.34  " 

33.70 

(( 

.36  " 

40.06 

>( 

.37  " 

45.02 

.37  " 

48.98 

a 

19.  All  brass  pipe  for  soil,  waste  and  vent  pipes  and  solder  nip- 
ples must  be  thoroughly  annealed,  seamless,  drawn,  brass  tubing, 
of  standard  iron-pipe  gauge. 

20.  Connections  on  brass  pipe  and  betw^een  brass  pipe  and  traps 
on  iron  pipe  must  not  be  made  with  slip  joints  or  couplings. 
Threaded  connections  on  brass  pipe  must  be  of  the  same  size  as 
iron  pipe  threads  for  same  size  of  pipe  and  be  tapered. 

21.  The  following  average  thicknesses  and  weights  per  linear  foot 
will  be  required: 


Diameters. 

Thicknesses. 

Weights  Per 
Linear  Foot. 

 14 

inches. 

2.84  pounds. 

2  "   

 15 

3.82 

2*  "   

 20 

6.08 

3  "   

 21 

7.92 

3i  "   

 22 

a 

9.54 

4  "   

 23 

11.29 

U  "   

 24 

(C 

13.08 

5  "   

 25 

a 

15.37 

6  "   

 28 

K 

19.88 

274 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


22.  Brass  fenniles  must  be  best  (juality,  bell-shaped,  extra  heavy 
cast  brass,  not  less  than  four  inclies  long  and  two  and  one-quarter, 
three  and  one-half  inches,  and  four  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter, 
and  not  less  than  the  following  weights: 


Diameters.  Weights. 

2i  inches   1  pound   0  ounces. 

3i     "    1     "      12  " 

4i     "    2     "  8 


23.  One  and  one-half  inch  ferrules  are  not  permitted. 

24.  Soldering  nipples  must  be  heavy  cast  brass  or  of  brass  pipe, 
iron-pipe  size.  When  cast  they  must  not  be  less  than  the  follow- 
ing weights  : 


Diameters.  Weights. 

\^  inches   0  pounds   8  ounces 

2  "    0      "      14  " 

2i    "   1      "       6  " 

3  "    2      "        0  " 

4  "    3      "       8  " 


25.  Brass  screw  caps  for  cleanouts  must  be  extra  heavy,  not  less 
than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick.  The  screw  cap  must  have  a  solid 
square  or  hexagonal  nut,  not  less  than  one  inch  high,  with  a  least 
diameter  of  one  and  one-half  inches.  The  body  of  the  cleanout 
ferrule  must  be  at  least  equal  in  weight  and  thickness  to  the  calk- 
ing ferrule  for  the  same  size  of  pipe. 

26.  Where  cleanouts  are  required  by  rules  and  by  the  approved 
plans,  the  screw  cap  must  be  of  brass.  The  engaging  parts  must 
have  not  less  than  six  threads  of  iron-pipe  size  and  be  tapered. 
Cleanouts  must  be  of  full  size  of  trap  up  to  four  inches  in 
diameter,  and  not  less  than  four  inches  for  larger  traps. 

27.  The  use  of  lead  pipes  is  restricted  to  the  short  branches  of 
the  soil-  and  waste-pipes,  bends  and  traps,  roof  connections  of  in- 
side leaders.  "  Short  branches  "  of  lead  pipe  shall  be  construed  to 
joints. 

5  feet  of  IJ-inch  pipe. 
4  feet  of  2-inch  pipe. 
2  feet  of  3-inch  pipe. 
2  feet  of  4-inch  pipe. 

28.  All  connections  between  lead  pipes  and  between  lead  and 


REGULATIONS  FOR  PLUMBING. 


275 


brass  or  copper  pipes  must  be  made  by  means  of  "  wiped  "  solder 
joints. 

29.  All  lead  waste-,  soil-,  vent-  and  flush-pipes  must  be  of  the 
best  quality,  known  in  commerce  as  "D,"  and  of  not  less  than  the 
following  weights  per  linear  foot: 


Weights  Per 

Diameters.  Linear  Foot. 

1^  inches  (for  flush  pipes  only)   2i  pounds 

U     "    3 

2  "    4 

3  "    6  " 

4  and  4i  inches   8  " 


30.  All  lead  traps  and  bends  must  be  of  the  same  weights  and 
thicknesses  as  their  coiTcsponding  pipe  branches.  Sheet  lead  for 
roof  flashings  must  be  six-pound  lead  and  must  extend  not  less 
than  six  inches  from  the  pipe  and  the  joint  made  water-tight. 

31.  Copper  tubing  when  used  for  inside  leader  roof  connections 
must  be  seamless  drawn  tubing,  not  less  than  22-gauge,  and  when 
used  for  roof  "flashings  must  be  not  less  than  18-gauge. 

III. 

General  Regulations. 

32.  The  entire  plumbing  and  drainage  system  of  each  building 
must  be  entirely  separate  and  independent  of  that  of  any  other 
building. 

33.  Each  building  must  be  separately  and  independently  con- 
nected with  a  public  or  private  sewer,  or  cesspool. 

34.  Every  building  must  have  its  sewer  connections  directly  in 
front  of  the  building,  unless  permission  is  otherwise  granted  by  the 
commissioner  of  buildings. 

35.  Where  there  is  no  sewer  in  the  street  or  avenue,  and  it  is 
possible  to  construct  a  private  sewer  to  connect  in  an  adjacent 
street  or  avenue,  a  private  sewer  must  be  constructed.  It  must 
be  laid  outside  the  curb,  under  the  roadway  of  the  street. 

36.  Cesspools  and  privy-vaults  will  be  permitted  only  after  it 
has  been  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  commissioner  of  build- 
ings that  their  use  is  absolutely  necessary. 

37.  When  allowed,  they  must  be  constructed  strictly  in  accord- 


276 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


a  nee  with  the  terms  of  the  permit  issued  by  the  commissioner  of 
buiklings. 

38.  Cesspools  must  not  be  used  as  privy-vaults.  Cesspools  and 
privy-vaults  must  be  at  least  twenty-five  feet  from  any  building 
and  should  be  on  the  same  lot  with  the  building  for  which  its 
use  is  intended.  Cesspools  and  privy-vaults  when  constructed  of 
brick  must  be  eight  inches  thick;  of  stone,  twenty  inches  thick. 

39.  All  cesspools  and  privy-vaults  must  be  made  w^ater-tight. 

40.  As  soon  as  it  is  possible  to  connect  with  a  public  sewer,  the 
owner  must  have  the  cesspool  and  privy- vault  emptied,  cleaned  and 
disinfected,  and  filled  with  fresh  earthy  and  have  a  sewer  connec- 
tion made  in  the  manner  herewith  prescribed. 

41.  All  pipe-lines  must  be  supported  at  the  base  on  brick  piers 
or  by  heavy  iron  hangers  from  the  cellar-ceiling  beams,  and  along 
the  line  by  heavy  iron  hangers  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  ten 
feet. 

42.  All  pipes  issuing  from  extension  or  elsewhere,  which  Avould 
otherwise  open  within  thirty  feet  of  the  window  of  any  building, 
must  be  extended  above  the  highest  roof  and  well  away  and  above 
all  windows. 

43.  The  arrangement  of  all  pipes  must  be  as  straight  and  direct 
as  possible.    Offsets  will  be  permitted  only  when  unavoidable. 

44.  All  pipes  and  traps  should,  where  possible,  be  exposed  to 
view.  They  should  always  be  readily  accessible  for  inspection  and 
repairing. 

45.  In  every  building  \\liere  there  is  a  leader  connected  to  the 
drain,  if  there  are  any  plumbing  fixtures,  there  must  be  at  least 
one  four  (4)  inch  pipe  extending  above  the  roof  for  ventilation. 

IV. 

Yard,  Area  and  Other  Drains. 

46.  All  yards,  areas  and  courts  must  be  drained. 

47.  Tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  must  have  their  yards, 
areas  and  courts  drained  into  the  sewer. 

48.  These  drains,  when  sewer-connected,  must  have  connections 
not  less  than  three  inches  in  diameter.  They  should  be  controlled 
by  one  trap — the  leader  trap  if  possible. 

49.  Cellar  drains  M  ill  be  permitted  only  where  they  can  be  con- 
nected to  a  trap  with  a  permanent  water  seal. 

50.  Subsoil  drains  should  discharge  into  a  sump  or  receiving- 


IlEiiULATIONS  FOR  PLUMBING. 


277 


tank,  the  contents  of  which  must  be  lifted  and  discharged  into 
the  drainage  system  above  the  cellar  bottom  by  some  approved 
method.  Wliore  directly  sewer-connected,  they  must  be  cut  oflf 
from  the  rest  of  the  plumbing  system  by  a  brass  flap  valve  on  the 
inlet  to  the  catch-basin,  and  the  trap  on  the  drain  from  the  catch- 
basin  must  be  water-supplied,  as  required  for  cellar  drains, 

51.  Floor  or  other  drains  will  only  be  permitted  when  it  can  be 
shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  commissioner  of  buildings  that 
their  use  is  absolutely  necessary  and  arrangements  made  to  main- 
tain a  permanent  water  seal  in  the  traps. 

V. 

Leaders. 

52.  All  buildings  shall  be  kept  provided  with  proper  metallic 
leaders  for  conducting  water  from  the  roofs  in  such  manner  as 
shall  protect  the  walls  and  foundations  of  said  buildings  from 
injury.  In  no  case  shall  the  water  from  said  leaders  be  allowed 
to  flow  upon  the  sidewalk,  but  the  same  shall  be  conducted  by 
pipe  or  pipes  to  the  sewer.  If  there  be  no  sewer  in  the  street  upon 
M'hich  such  buildings  front,  then  the  water  from  said  leaders  shall 
bo  conducted  by  proper  pipe  or  pipes  below  the  surface  of  the 
sidewalk  to  the  street  gutter. 

53.  Inside  leaders  must  be  made  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron  or 
steel,  with  roof  connections  made  gas-  and  water-tight  by  means 
of  a  heavy  lead  or  copper-drawn  tubing  wiped  or  soldered  to  a 
brass  ferrule  or  nipple  calked  or  screwed  into  the  pipe. 

54.  Outside  leaders  may  be  of  sheet  metal,  but  they  must  con- 
nect with  the  house-drain  by  means  of  a  cast-iron  pipe  extending 
vertically  5  feet  above  the  grade  level. 

55.  Leaders  must  be  trapped  with  cast-iron  running  traps  so 
placed  as  to  prevent  freezing. 

5G.  Rain-water  leaders  must  not  be  used  as  soil,  waste  or  vent 
pipes,  nor  shall  any  such  pipe  be  used  as  a  leader. 

VI. 

The  Honse-seicer,  House-drain,  House-trap  and  Fresh-air  Inlet. 

57.  Old  house-sewers  can  be  used  in  connection  with  the  new 
buildings  or  new  plumbing  only  when  they  are  found,  on  examina- 
tion by  the  plumbing  inspector,  to  conform  in  all  respects  to  the 
requirements  governing  new  sewers. 


278 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION, 


58.  When  a  proper  foundation,  consisting  of  a  natural  bed  of 
earth,  rock,  etc.,  can  be  obtained,  the  house-sewer  can  "be  of  earthen- 
ware pipe. 

59.  Where  the  ground  is  made  or  filled  in,  or  where  the  pipes 
are  less  than  three  feet  deep,  or  in  any  case  where  there  is  danger 
of  settlement  by  frost  or  from  any  cause,  the  house-sewer  must 
be  of  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe,  with  lead-calked  joints. 

CO.  The  house-drain  and  its  branches  must  be  of  extra  heav; 
cast  iron,  when  undergi'ound,  and  of  extra  heavy  cast  iron  or  gal 
vanized  wrought  iron  or  steel  when  above  ground. 

61.  Tlie  house-drain  must  properly  connect  with  the  house-sewer 
at  a  point  'two  feet  outside  of  the  outer  front  vault  or  area  wall 
of  the  building.  An  arched  or  other  proper  opening  must  be  pro- 
vided for  the  drain  in  the  wall  to  prevent  damage  by  settlement. 

62.  If  possible,  the  house-drain  must  be  above  the  cellar  floor. 
The  house-drain  must  be  supported  at  intervals  of  ten  feet  by 
eight-inch  brick  piers  or  suspended  from  the  floor  beams,  or  be 
otherwise  properly  supported  by  heavy  iron-pipe  hangers  at  in- 
terval of  not  more  than  ten  feet.  The  use  of  pipe  hooks  for  sup- 
porting drains  is  prohibited. 

63.  No  steam-exhaust,  boiler  blow-off  or  drip-pipe  shall  be  con- 
nected with  the  house-drain  or  sewer.  Such  pipes  must  first  dis- 
charge into  a  proper  condensing  tank,  and  from  this  a  proper  out- 
let to  the  house-sewer  outside  of  the  building  must  be  provided. 
In  low-pressure  steam  systems  the  condensing  tank  may  be  omit- 
ted, but  the  waste  connection  must  be  otherwise  as  above  required. 

64.  The  house-drain  and  house-sewer  must  be  run  as  direct  as 
possible,  with  a  fall  of  at  least  one-quarter  inch  per  foot,  all 
changes  in  direction  made  with  proper  fittings,  and  all  connections 
made  with  Y  branches  and  one-eighth  and  one-sixteenth  bends. 

65.  The  house-sewer  and  house-drain  must  be  at  least  four  inch 
in  diameter  where  water-closets  discharge  into  them.    Where  raa. 
water  discharges  into  them  the  house-sewer  and  house-drain  up 
to  the  leader  connections  must  be  in  accordance  with  the  following- 
table : 

Fall  M-'mch.  Per 


Diameter.  Foot.  Fall  ^-inch  Per  Foot. 

6  inches   5,000  sq.  ft.       7,500  sq.  ft.  of  drainage  of  area. 

7  "    6,900     "  .10,300 

8  "    9,100     "  13,600  " 

9  "    11,600     "  17,400  « 


liEGULATIoyS  FOR  PLUMBING 


270 


6G.  Full  size  Y  and  T  branch  fittiifgs  for  liandhole  cleanouts  must 
be  provided  where  required  on  house-drain  and  its  branches. 

67.  An  iron  running  trap  must  be  placed  on  the  house-drain 
near  the  wall  of  the  house,  and  on  the  sewer  side  of  all  connections, 
except  a  drip-pipe  where  one  is  used.  If  placed  outside  the  house 
or  below  the  cellar  floor,  it  must  be  made  accessible  in  a  brick  man- 
hole, the  walls  of  which  must  be  eight  inches  thick,  with  an  iron 
or  flagstone  cover.  When  outside  the  house  it  must  never  be  less 
than  three  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  house-trap  must  have  two  cleanouts  with  brass  screw-cap 
ferrules  calked  in. 

68.  A  fresh-air  inlet  must  be  connected  with  the  house-drain  just 
inside  of  the  house-trap,  where  under  ground  it  will  be  of  extra 
heavy  cast  iron.  Where  possible  it  will  extend  to  the  external 
air,  and  finish  with  an  automatic  device,  approved  by  the  depart- 
ment of  buildings,  at  a  point  just  outside  the  front  wall  of  build- 
ing. The  fresh-air  inlet  must  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  drain  up 
to  four  inches.  For  five-  and  six-inch  drains  it  must  be  not  less 
than  four  inches  in  diameter.  For  seven-  and  eight-inch  drains  not 
less  than  six  inches  in  diameter,  or  its  equivalent,  and  for  large 
drains  not  less  than  eight  inches  in  diameter,  or  its  equivalent. 

The  curb  inlet  and  the  return-bend  inlet  are  hereby  prohibited. 

VII. 

Soil-  and  Waste-pipes. 

69.  All  main  soil-,  waste-  or  vent-pipes  must  be  of  iron,  steel  or 
brass. 

70.  When  they  receive  the  discharge  of  fixtures  on  any  floor 
above  the  first,  they  must  be  extended  in  full  calibre  at  least  one 
foot  above  the  roof  coping,  and  well  away  from  all  shafts,  windows, 
chimneys  or  other  ventilating  openings.  When  less  than  four 
inches  in  diameter,  they  must  be  enlarged  to  four  inches  at  a  point 
not  less  than  one  foot  below  the  roof  surface  by  an  increaser  not 
less  than  nine  (9)  inches  long. 

71.  No  caps,  cowls  or  bends  shall  be  affixed  to  the  top  of  such 
pipe. 

72.  In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  wire  baskets  must 
be  securely  fastened  into  the  opening  of  each  pipe  that  is  in  an  ac- 
cessible position. 


280 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


73.  Necessary  offsets  above  t'  e  lr"ghei^t  fixture  branch  iimst  not 
be  made  at  an  angle  of  less  than  45  degrees  to  the  horizontal. 

74.  Soil-  and  waste-pipes  must  have  proper  Y  branches  for  all 
fixture  connections. 

75.  No  connection  to  lead  branches  for  water-closets  or  slop- 
sinks  will  be  permitted,  except  the  required  branch  vent. 

76.  Branch  soil-  and  waste-pipes  must  have  a  fall  of  at  least  one- 
quarter  incli  per  foot. 

77.  Short  TY  branches  will  be  permitted  on  vertical  pipes  only. 
Long  one-quarter  bends  and  long  TYs  are  permitted.  Short  one- 
quarter  bends  and  double  hubs,  short  roof  increasers  and  common 
offsets^  and  bands  and  saddles  are  prohibited. 

78.  The  diameters  of  soil-  and  waste-pipes  must  not  be  less  than 
those  given  in  the  following  tables  : 

Main  soil-pipes   4  inches 

Main  soil-pipes  for  water-closets  on  five  or  more  floors. .  .  5 

Branch  soil-pipes   4 

Main  waste-pipes   2 

Main  waste-pipes  for  kitchen  sinks  on  five  or  more  floors.  3 

Branch  waste-pipes  for  laundry  tubs   1| 

When  set  in  ranges  of  tliree  or  more   2 

Branch  waste  for  kitclun  ^inks   2 

Branch  w^aste  for  urinals   2 

Branch  waste  for  other  fixtures   1^ 


VIII. 

Vent-pipes. 

79.  All  traps  must  be  protected  from  syphonage  and  back-pres- 
sure, and  the  drainage  system  ventilated  by  special  lines  of  vent- 
pipes. 

80.  All  vent-pipe  lines  and  main  branches  must  be  of  iron,  steel 
or  brass.  They  must  be  increased  in  diameter  and  extended  above 
the  roof  as  required  for  waste-pipes.  They  may  be  connected  with 
the  adjoining  soil  or  waste  line  well  above  the  highest  fixture,  but 
this  will  not  be  permitted  when  there  are  fixtures  on  more  than  six 
floors. 

81.  All  offsets  must  be  made  at  an  angle  of  not  less  than  forty- 
five  degrees  to  the  horizontal,  and  all  lines  must  be  connected  at 


REGULATIONS  FOR  PLVMBINO.  281 


tlie  bottom  with  a  soil-  or  waste-pipe  or  the  drain  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  rust-scale. 

82.  Branch  vent-pipes  should  be  kept  above  the  top  of  all  con- 
necting- fixtures,  to  prevent  the  use  of  vent-pipes  as  soil-  or  waste- 
pipes.  Branch  vent-pipes  should  be  connected  as  near  to  the  crown 
of  the  trap  as  possible. 

83.  Earthenware  traps  for  water-closets  and  slop-sinks  must  be 
ventilated  from  the  branch  soil-  or  waste-pipe  just  below  the  trap, 
and  this  branch  vent-pipe  must  be  so  connected  as  to  prevent  ob- 
struction, and  no  waste-pipe  connected  between  it  and  the  fixture. 
Earthenware  traps'must  have  no  vent-horns. 

84.  No  sheet  metal,  brick  or  other  flue  shall  be  used  as  a  vent- 
pipe. 

85.  The  sizes  of  vent-pipes  throughout  must  not  be  less  than  the 
following: 

For  main  vents  and  long  branches,  two  inches  in  diameter;  for 
water-closets  on  three  or  more  floors,  three  inches  in  diameter;  for 
other  fixtures  on  less  than  seven  floors,  two  inches  in  diameter; 
three-inch  vent  pipe  will  be  permitted  for  less  than  nine  stories; 
for  more  than  eight  and  less  than  sixteen  stories,  four  inches  in 
diameter;  for  more  than  fifteen  and  less  than  twenty-two  stories, 
five  inches  in  diameter;  for  more  than  twenty-one  stories,  six 
inches  in  diameter;  branch  vents  for  traps  larger  than  two  inches, 
two  inches  in  diameter;  branch  vents  for  traps  two  inches  or  less, 
one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter. 

For  fixtures  other  than  water-closets  and  slop-sinks,  and  for  more 
than  eight  (8)  stories,  vent-pipes  may  be  one  (1)  inch  smaller 
than  above  stated. 

IX. 

Trails. 

86.  No  form  of  trap  will  be  permitted  to  be  used  unless  it 
has  been  approved  by  the  board  of  buildings. 

87.  Every  fixture  must  be  separately  trapped  by  a  water-seal- 
ing trap  placed  as  close  to  the  fixture  outlet  as  possible. 

88.  A  set  of  wash-trays  may  connect  with  a  single  trap,  or  into 
the  trap  of  an  adjoining  sink,  provided  both  sink  and  tub  waste 
outlets  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  waste  line,  and  the  sink  is 
nearest  the  line.  When  so  connected  the  waste-pipe  from  the 
wash-trays  must  be  branched  in  below  the  water  seal. 


282 


iiandbook'on  sanitation. 


89.  The  discharge  from  any  fixture  must  not  pass  through  more 
than  one  trap  before  reaching  the  house-drain. 

90.  All  traps  must  be  well  supported  and  set  true  with  respe  t 
to  their  water  levels. 

91.  All  fixtures  other  than  water-closets  and  urinals  must  have 
strong  metallic  strainers  or  bars  oAer  the  outlets  to  prevent  ob- 
struction of  the  waste-pipe. 

92.  All  exposed  or  accessible  traps,  except  water-closet  traps, 
must  have  brass  trap-screws  for  cleaning  the  trap  placed  on  the 
inlet  side,  or  below  the  water  level. 

93.  All  iron  traps  for  house-drain,  yard  and  other  drains  and 
leaders  must  be  running  traps  with  handhole  cleanouts  of  full  size 
of  the  traps  when  same  are  less  than  five  (5)  inches.  All  traj  s 
underground  must  be  made  accessible  by  brick  manholes  with 
proper  covers. 

94.  Overflow  pipes  from  fixtures  must  in  all  cases  be  connected 
on  the  inlet  side  of  traps. 

95.  All  earthenware  traps  must  have  heavy  brass  floor-plates 
soldered  to  the  lead  bends  and  bolted  to  the  trap  flange,  and  the 
joint  made  gas-tight  with  red  or  white  lead.  The  use  of  rubber 
washers  for  floor  connections  is  prohibited. 

96.  No  trap  shall  be  placed  at  the  foot  of  main  soil-  and  waste- 
pipe  lines. 

97.  The  sizes  for  traps  must  not  be  less  than  those  given  in  the 
following  table: 

Traps  for  water-closets   4  inches  in  diameter 

Traps  for  slop-sinks   2  " 

Traps  foT  kitchen-sinks   2  " 

Traps  for  wash-trays   2  " 

Traps  for  urinals   2  " 

Traps  for  other  fixtures   lA  " 

Traps  for  leaders,  areas,  floor  and  other  drains  must  be  at  least 
3  inches  in  diameter. 

X. 

Safe  and  Refrigerator  Waste-pipes. 

98.  Safe  and  refrigerator  waste-pipes  must  be  of  galvanized 
iron,  and  be  not  less  than  one  and  one-quarter  (1])  inch  in  diam- 
eter, with  lead  branches  of  the  same  size,  with  strainers  over  the 
inlets  secured  by  a  bar  soldeved  to  the  lead  branch. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  PLUMBING. 


283 


99.  Safe  waste-pipes  must  not  connect  directly  with  any  part  of 
the  plumbing  system. 

100.  Safe  waste-pipes  must  either  discharge  over  an  open, 
water-supplied,  publicly-placed,  ordinarily-used  sink,  placed  not 
more  than  three  and  one-half  feet  above  the  cellar  floor. 

101.  The  safe  waste-pipe  from  a  refrigerator  must  be  trapped  at 
the  bottom  of  the  line  only  and  cannot  discharge  upon  the  ground 
or  floor.  It  must  discharge  over  an  ordinary  portable  pan,  or  over 
some  properly-trapped,  water-supplied  sink,  as  above.  In  no  case 
shall  the  refrigerator  waste-pipe  discharge  over  a  sink  located  in 
a  room  used  for  living  purposes. 

102.  The  branches  on  vertical  lines  must  be  made  by  Y  fittings, 
and  be  carried  up  to  the  safe  with  as  much  pitch  as  possible. 

103.  Lead  safes  must  be  graded  and  neatly  turned  over  bevel 
strips  at  their  edges. 

104.  Where  there  is  an  offset  on  a  refrigerator  waste-pipe  in  the 
cellar,  there  must  be  cleanouts  to  control  the  horizontal  part  of  the 
pipe. 

105.  In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  the  refrigerator 
waste-pipes  must  extend  above  the  roof,  and  must  not  be  larger 
than  one  and  one-half  inches,  nor  the  branches  smaller  than  one 
and  one-quarter  inches. 

106.  Refrigerator  waste-pipes,  except  in  tenement-houses,  and 
all  safe  waste-pipes,  must  have  brass  flap-valves  at  their  lower 
ends. 

XI. 

107.  In  tenement-houses,  lodging-houses,  factories,  workshops 
and  all  public  buildings,  the  entire  water-closet  apartment  and  side 
walls  to  a  height  of  sixteen  inches  from  the  floor,  except  at  the 
door,  must  be  made  waterproof  with  asphalt,  cement,  tile,  metal 
or  other  waterproof  material  as  approved  by  the  board  of  build- 
ings. 

108.  In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  the  water-closet  and 
urinal  apartments  must  have  a  window  opening  to  the  outer  air, 
except  that  tenement-  or  lodging-houses  three  stories  or  less  in 
height  may  have  such  window  opening  on  a  ventilating  shaft  not 
less  than  ten  square  feet  in  area. 

109.  In  all  buildings  the  outside  partition  of  such  apartment 
must  extend  to  the  ceiling  or '  be  independently  ceiled  over,  and 


284: 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


these  partitions  must  be  air-tiglit.  Tlie  outside  partitions  must  in- 
clude a  window  opening  to  outer  air  on  the  lot  whereon  the  build- 
ing is  situated,  or  some  other  approved  means  of  ventilation  must 
be  provided.  When  necessary  to  properly  light  such  apartments, 
the  upper  part  of  the  partitions  must  be  made  of  glass.  Tlie 
interior  partitions  of  such  apartments  must  be  dwarfed  partitions. 

110.  The  general  water-closet  accommodations  for  a  tenement- 
or  lodging-house  cannot  be  placed  in  the  cellar. 

111.  No  water-closet  can  be  placed  outside  of  a  building. 

112.  The  closets  must  be  set  open  and  free  from  all  enclosing 
w^oodwork. 

113.  Where  water-closets  will  not  support  a  rim  seat,  the  seat 
must  be  supported  on  galvanized-iron  legs,  and  a  drip-tray  mugt 
be  used. 

114.  Eveiy  earthenware  closet  in  all  new  work  and  in  all  al- 
terations where  it  is  not  impossible  to  use  it  because  of  water- 
pipes  or  other  obstructions,  must  be  set  on  a  natural  stone  slab. 
Sand  or  artificial  stone  or  tile  will  not  be  allowed. 

115.  All  water-closets  must  have  earthenware  flushing-rim 
bowls;  "pipe-wash"  bowls  or  hoppers  will  not  be  permitted. 

116.  Pan,  valve,  plunger,  off  set- washout  and  other  water-closets 
having  an  unventilated  space,  or  whose  walls  are  not  thoroughly 
washed  at  each  discharge,  will  not  be  permitted. 

117.  Long  hoppers  will  not  be  permitted,  except  where  there 
is  an  exposure  to  frost. 

118.  The  connections  of  traps  must  be  made  to  main  soil-,  waste- 
or  vent-pipe,  by  means  of  lead-calked  or  screwed  joints.  Drip- 
trays  must  be  enamelled  on  both  sides  and  secured  in  place. 

119.  In  all  sewer-connected  occupied  buildings  there  must  be  at 
least  one  water-closet,  and  there  must  be  additional  closets  so  that 
there  will  never  be  more  than  15  persons  per  closet. 

120.  In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  there  must  be  one 
water-closet  on  each  floor,  and  when  there  is  more  than  one  family 
on  a  floor,  there  will  be  one  additional  water-closet  for  every  two 
additional  families. 

121.  In  lodging-houses  where  there  are  more  than  15  persons  on 
any  floor,  there  must  be  an  additional  water-closet  on  that  floor 
for  every  15  additional  persons  or  fraction  thereof. 

122.  Water-closets  and  urinals  must  never  be  connected  directly 
with  or  flushed  from  the  water-supply  pipes. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  PLUMBING. 


285 


123.  Water-closets  and  urinals  must  be  Hushed  from  separate 
cisterns  on  each  floor^  the  water  from  which  is  used  for  no  other 
purposes. 

124.  The  overflow  of  cisterns  may  discharge  into  the  bowls  of 
the  closet,  but  in  no  case  connect  with  any  part  of  the  drainage 
system. 

125.  Iron  water-closet  and  urinal  cisterns  and  automatic  water- 
closet  and  urinal  cisterns  are  prohibited. 

120.  The  copper  lining  of  water-closet  and  urinal  cisterns  must 
not  be  lighter  than  ten  (10)  ounce  copper. 

127.  Water-closet  flush-pipes  must  not  be  less  than  one  and  one- 
fourth  inches  and  urinal  flush-pipes  one  (1)  inch  in  diameter,  and 
if  of  lead  must  not  weigh  less  than  two  and  one-half  pounds  and 
two  pounds  per  linear  feet.  Flusli  couplings  must  be  of  full  size 
of  the  pipe. 

128.  Latrine's  trough  water-closets  and  similar  appliances  may  ' 
be  used  only  on  written  permit  from  the  said  commissioner  of 
buildings,  and  must  be  set  and  arranged  as  may  be  required  by 
the  terms  of  the  permit. 

129.  All  urinals  must  be  constructed  of  materials  impervious  to 
moisture  that  it  will  not  corrode  under  the  action  of  urine.  The 
floor  and  ^^  all  of  the  urinal  apartments  must  be  lined  with  similar 
non-absorbent  and  non-corrosive  material. 

130.  The  platforms  or  treads  of  urinal  stalls  must  never  be  con- 
nected independently  to  the  plumbing  system,  nor  can  they  be 
connected  to  any  safe  waste-pipe. 

131.  Iron  trough  water-closets  and  trough  urinals  must  be  en- 
amelled or  galvanized. 

132.  In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  sinks  must  be  en- 
tirely open,  on  iron  legs  or  brackets,  without  any  enclosing  wood- 
work. 

133.  Wooden  washtubs  are  prohibited.  Cement  or  artificial  stone 
tubs  will  not  be  permitted  unless  approved  by  the  board  of  build- 
ings. 

XII. 

Water-supply  for  Fixtures. 

134.  All  water-closets  and  other  plumbing  fixtures  must  be  pro- 
vided with  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  for  flushing,  to  keep  them 
in  a  proper  and  cleanly  condition. 


286 


HANDBOOK  OJS'  SANITATION. 


135.  ^\^len  the  water- pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  supply  freely 
and  continuously  all  fixtures,  a  house-supply  tank  must  be  pro- 
vided, of  sufficient  size  to  afford  an  ample  supply  of  water  to  all 
fixtures  at  all  times.  Such  tanks  must  be  supplied  from  the  pres- 
sure or  by  pumps,  as  may  be  necessary;  when  from  the  pressure, 
ball-cocks  must  be  provided. 

136.  If  water-pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  fill  house-tank,  power 
pumps  must  be  provided  for  filling  them  in  tenement-houses,  lodg- 
ing-houses, factories  and  workshops. 

137.  Tanks  must  be  covered  so  as  to  exclude  dust,  and  must  be 
so  located  as  to  prevent  water  contamination  by  gas  and  odors 
from  plumbing  fixtures. 

138.  House  supply-tanks  must  be  of  wood  or  iron,  or  of  wood 
lined  with  tinned  and  planished  copper. 

139.  House-tanks  must  be  supported  on  iron  beams. 

140.  The  overflow-pipe  should  discharge  upon  the  roof,  where 
possible,  and  in  such  cases  should  be  brought  down  to  within  six 
(6)  inches  of  Ihe  roof,  or  it  must  be  trapped  and  discharged  over 
an  open  and  water-supplied  sink  not  in  the  same  room,  not  over 
3J  feet  above  the  floor.  In  no  case  shall  the  overflow  be  connected 
with  any  part  of  the  plumbing  system. 

141.  Emptying  pipes  for  such  tanks  must  be  provided,  and  be 
discharged  in  the  manner  required  for  overflow-pipes,  and  maj^  be 
branched  into  overflow-pipes. 

142.  Xo  service-pipes  or  supplying-pipes  should  be  run,  and  no 
tanks,  flushing  cisterns  or  water-supplied  fixtures  should  be  placed 
where  they  will  be  exposed  to  frost. 

143.  Where  so  placed  they  shall  be  properly  packed  and.  boxed  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  freezing. 

XIII. 

Testing  the  Plumbing  System. 

144.  The  entire  plumbing  and  drainage  system  within  the  build- 
ing must  be  tested  by  the  plumber,  in  the  presence  of  a  plumbing 
inspector,  under  a  water  or  air  test,  as  directed.  All  pipes  must 
remain  uncovered  in  every  part  until  they  have  successfully  passed 
the  test.  The  plumber  must  securely  close  all  openings  as  directed 
by  the  inspector  of  plumbing.  The  use  of  wooden  plugs  for  this 
purpose  is  prohibited. 


REGULATIONS  FOR  PLUMBING. 


287 


145.  The  water  test  will  be  applied  by  closing  the  lower  end  of 
the  main  house-drain  and  filling  the  pipes  to  the  highest  opening 
above  the  roof  with  water.  The  water  test  shall  include  at  one 
time  the  house-drain  and  branches,  all  vertical  and  horizontal  soil, 
waste  and  vent  and  leader  lines  and  all  branches  therefrom  to 
point  above  the  surface  of  the  finished  floor  and  beyond  the  fin- 
ished face  of  walls  and  partitions.  Deviation  from  the  above  rule 
will  not  be  permitted,  unless  upon  written  application  to  and  ap- 
proval by  the  commissioner  of  buildings.  If  the  drain  or  any  part 
of  the  system  is  to  be  tested  separately,  there  must  be  a  head  of 
water  at  least  six  feet  (6)  above  all  parts  of  the  work  so  tested, 
and  special  provision  must  be  made  for  including  all  joints  and 
connections  in  at  least  one  test. 

146.  The  air  test  will  be  applied  with  a  force-pump  and  mercury 
columns  under  ten  pounds  pressure,  equal  to  twenty  inches  of  mer- 
cury.   The  use  of  spring  gauges  is  prohibited. 

147.  After  the  completion  of  the  work,  when  the  water  has  been 
turned  on  and  the  traps  filled,  the  plumber  must  make  a  pepper- 
mint or  smoke  test  in  the  presence  of  a  plumbing  inspector  and 
as  directed  by  him. 

148.  The  material  and  labor  for  the  tests  must  be  funiished  by 
the  plumber.  Where  the  peppermint  test  is  used,  two  ounces  of 
oil  of  peppermint  must  be  provided  for  each  line  up  to  five  stories 
and  basement  in  height,  and  for  each  additional  five  stories  or 
fraction  thereof,  one  additional  ounce  of  peppermint  must  be  pro- 
vided for  each  line. 


IV. 


DISINFECTANTS  AND  METHODS  OF  DISINFECTION 
AS  RECOMMENDED  BY  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF 
HEALTH  OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 

DISINFECTION  AND  DISINFECTANTS. 

Sunlight,  pure  air  and  cleanliness  are  always  veiy  important 
agents  in  maintaining  health  and  in  protecting  the  body  against 
many  forms  of  illness.  When,  however,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
guard  against  such  special  dangers  as  accumulated  filth  or  con- 
tagious diseases,  disinfection  is  also  essential.  In  order  that  dis- 
infection shall  afford  complete  protection,  it  must  be  thorough, 
and  perfect  cleanliness  is  better,  even  in  the  presence  of  contagious 
disease,  than  poor  disinfection. 

All  forms  of  fermentation,  decomposition,  and  putrefaction,  as 
well  as  the  infectious  and  contagious  diseases,  are  caused  by 
minute  living  germs.  The  object  of  disinfection  is  to  kill  these 
germs.  Decomposition  and  putrefaction  should  at  times  be  pre- 
vented by  the  immediate  destruction  or  removal  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  dwelling,  of  all  useless  putrescible  substances. 
Impure  air,  especially  air  from  sewers,  cesspools,  putrefactive  mat- 
ter, etc.,  causes  conditions  in  man  which  are  very  favorable  to  the 
contraction  of  contagious  diseases. 

In  order  that  the  sick  room  shall  be  readily  kept  clean  and  as 
free  ag  possible  from  the  germs  causing  the  infectious  diseases,  it 
is  important  that  all  articles  not  necessary  for  immediate  use  in 
the  care  of  the  sick  person,  especially  upholstered  funiiture,  car- 
pets, curtains  and  bric-a-brac,  should  be  removed  from  the  room 
to  be  occupied  by  the  sick  person.  If  another  room  has  already 
been  occupied,  it  must,  of  course,  be  disinfected. 

AGENTS  FOR  CLEANSING  AND  DISINFECTION. 
Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed  upon  the  importance  of 
sunlight,  fresh  air  and  cleanliness,  both  as  regards  the  person, 

288 


METHODS  OF  DISINFECTION. 


289 


the  dwelling  and  its  surroundings,  in  preserving  health  and  pro- 
tecting the  body  from  all  kinds  of  disease.  Sunlight  and  fresh  air 
should  be  freely  admitted  through  open  windows,  and  personal 
cleanliness  should  be  attained  by  frequently  washing  the  hands 
and  body. 

Cleanliness  in  dwellings,  and  in  all  places  where  men  go,  may 
under  ordinary  circumstances  be  well  maintained  by  the  use  of  the 
three  following  solutions: 

1.  Soap-suds  Solution. — For  simple  cleansing,  or  for  cleansing  be- 
fore or  after  the  methods  of  disinfection  by  chemicals  described 
below,  one  ounce  of  common  washing  soda  should  be  added  to 
twelve  quarts  of  hot  soap  (soft  soap)  and  water. 

2.  Strong  Soda  Solution. — This,  which  is  a  stronger  and  more 
effective  cleansing  solution,  is  made  by  dissolving  one-half  pound 
of  common  washing  soda  in  three  gallons  of  hot  water.  This  so- 
lution thus  obtained  should  be  applied  by  scrubbing  with  a  hard 
bmsh. 

3.  Weak  Soda  Solution. — This  is  made  by  dissolving  one  ounce 
of  common  w^ashing  soda  in  twelve  quarts  of  hot  water. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  arrest  putrefaction  or  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  contagious  diseases  by  killing  the  living  germs  which 
cause  them,  more  powerful  agents  must  be  employed  than  those 
required  for  simple  cleanliness,  and  these  are  called  disinfectants. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  most  reliable  disinfectants: 

4.  Heat. — Complete  destruction  by  fire  is  the  best  method  of  dis- 
posing of  infected  articles  of  small  value;  but  continued  high  tem- 
peratures not  as  great  as  that  of  fire  will  destroy  all  forms  of 
life.  Thus,  boiling  or  steaming  in  closed  vessels  for  one-half  hour, 
or  boiling  in  the  Weak  Soda  Solution  in  open  vessels  for  the  same 
time,  will  destroy  all  disease  germs.  Dry  heat  is  not  s6  effective 
a  germ  destroyer  as  moist  heat,  except  at  much  higher  tempera- 
tures, which  will  destroy  or  injure  many  combustible  materials. 

5.  Carholic  Acid  Solution — Lysol-Creolin. — Dissolve  six  ounces 
of  carbolic  acid  in  one  gallon  of  hot  water.  This  makes  approxi- 
mately a  five  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  which,  for  many 
purposes,  may  be  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  pure  acid  does  not  come  in  contact 
with  the  skin,  as  it  is  very  corrosive.  The  commercial  colored 
impure  carbolic  acid  should  not  be  used  in  watery  solutions  as  it 
contains  a  large  percentage  of  cresol,  w^hich  is  insoluble  in  water 


290 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


and  has,  therefore,  little  value.  The  two  alkaline  soluticais  of 
cresol,  named  lysol  and  creolin,  are  strong  disinfectants  and  non- 
corrosive  and  can  be  used  in  place  of  the  solutions  of  carbolic 
acid  of  equal  strength. 

6.  Bichloride  Solution  (bichloride  of  mercury  or  corrosive  sub- 
limate).— Dissolve  sixty  grains  of  pulverized  corrosive  sublimate 
and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  common  salt  in  one  gallon  of  hot  water. 
This  makes  approximately  a  1  to  1000  solution.  This  solution 
must  be  kept  in  glass,  earthen  or  wooden  vessels  (not  in  metal 
vessels),  and  is  not  to  be  used  for  disinfecting  metal  articles. 

The  Carbolic  and  Bichloride  Solutions  are  very  poisonous  when 
taken  by  the  mouth,  but  are  harmless  when  used  externally. 

7.  Milk  of  Lime. — This  mixture  is  made  by  adding  one  quart 
of  dry  freshly  slaked  lime  to  four  or  five  quarts  of  water.  (Lime 
is  slaked  by  pouring  a  small  quantity  of  water  on  a  lump  of  quick- 
lime. The  lime  becomes  hot,  crumbles,  and  as  the  slaking  is  com- 
pleted a  white  powder  results.  The  powder  is  used  to  make  Milk 
of  Lime).    Air-slaked  lime  has  no  value  as  a  disinfectant. 

8.  Dry  Chloride  of  Lime. — This  must  be  fresh  and  kept  in  closed 
vessels  or  packages.  It  should  have  the  strong  pungent  odor  of 
chlorine. 

Chlorinated  Lime  Solution. — This  solution  is  made  by  adding 
six  ounces  of  fresh  chloride  of  lime,  having  a  strong  odor  of 
chlorine,  to  one  gallon  of  water.  It  must  be  well  mixed  and  should 
be  prepared  one  hour  before  using.  This  solution,  when  fresh,  is 
a  reliable  disinfectant  and  deodorizer. 

9.  Formalin. — This  is  a  40  per  cent,  solution  of  formaldehyde 
gas  in  water.  It  is,  in  a  5  per  cent,  solution,  an  efficient  disin- 
fectant and  deodorizer.  A  method  which  gives  fairly  efficient  re- 
sults, is  t*o  hang  large  cloths  (sheets)  in  the  room  and  sprinkle  or 
spray  them  with  formalin,  as  recommended  by  the  Chicago  Health 
Department.  For  each  1^000  cubic  feet  of  space  in  the  room,  10 
ounces  of  formalin  should  be  used. 

10.  ^Sulphurous  Acid  Gas,  i.e.,  the  gas  produced  by  burning 
sulphur,  is  a  fairly  efficient  germicide  under  certain  definite  con- 
ditions. These  conditions  are,  in  brief,  that  all  the  germs  should 
be  freely  exposed  to  the  gas  in  a  tightly  closed  room  for  at  least 
eight  hours,  that  the  air  of  the  room  should  be  moist,  and  that 
the  amount  of  gas  should  be  that  generated  by  burning  at  least 
three  pounds  of  sulphur  for  every  1,000  cubic  feet  of  air  sppee- 


METHODS  OF  DISINFECTION. 


291 


The  proprietary  disinfectants  which  are  so  often  icidely  ad- 
vertised, and  ichose  composition  is  kept  secret,  are  relatively  ex- 
pensive and  often  unreliable  and  inefficient.  It  is  important  to 
remember  that  substances  which  destroy  or  disguise  bad  odors 
are  not  necessarily  disinfectants. 

Note. — ^The  cost  of  the  Carbolic  Solution  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  the  other  solutions,  but  generally  this  solution  is  to  be  much 
preferred.  When  the  cost  is  an  important  element,  the  Bichloride 
Solution  may  be  substituted  for  all  purposes  for  which  the  Carbolic 
Solution  is  recommended,  except  for  the  disinfection  of  discharges, 
eating  utensils  and  articles  made  of  metal,  and  of  clothing,  bed- 
ding, etc.,  which  is  very  much  soiled.  Its  poisonous  character  must 
be  kept  constantly  in  mind. 

METHODS  OF  DISINFECTIOX  IX  INFECTIOUS  AND  CON- 
TAGIOUS DISEASES. 

The  most  important  diseases  to  be  guarded  against  by  disin- 
fection are  Scarlet  Fever,  Measles,  Diphtheria,  Tuberculosis  (Con- 
sumption), Smallpox,  Typhoid  and  Typhus  Fevers,  Yellow  Fever 
and  Cholera, 

1.  Hands  and  Person. — Dilute  the  Carbolic  Acid,  Lysol  or  Cre- 
olin  Solutions  with  an  equal  amount  of  water,  or  use  the  Bi- 
chloride Solution  without  dilution.  Hands  soiled  in  caring  for 
persons  suffering  from  contagious  diseases,  or  soiled  portions  of 
the  patient's  body,  should  be  immediately  washed  with  one  of 
these  solutions,  and  then  thoroughly  Avashed  with  soap  and  w^ater. 
The  nails  should  always  be  kept  perfectly  clean  with  a  brush  or 
nail-cleaner.  Before  eating,  the  hands  should  be  first  washed  in 
one  of  the  above  solutions,  then  thoroughly  scrubbed  with  eoap 
and  water  by  means  of  a  brush,  and  finally  dipped  again  in  the 
disinfectant. 

2.  Soiled  Clothing,  Towels,  Napkins,  Beddinij,  etc.,  should  be 
immediately  immersed,  in  the  sick-room,  in  boiling  water 
for  one  half  hour,  or  in  the  Carbolic  Solution  for  twelve  hours. 
They  can  then  be  wrung  out  and  washed  in  the  usual  w^ay.  Ar- 
ticles such  as  beds,  woollen  clothing,  etc.,  which  cannot  be  washed, 
should  be  referred  to  the  Health  Department  for  disinfection  or 
destruction. 

3.  Food  and  Drink. — Food  thoroughly  cooked  and  drinks  that 


292 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


have  been  boiled  are  free  from  disease  germs.  Food  and  drinks, 
after  cooking  or  boiling,  if  not  immediately  used,  should  be  placed 
when  cool  in  clean  dishes  or  vessels  and  covered.  In  presence 
of  an  epidemic  of  Cholera  or  Typhoid  Fever,  milk  and  water  used 
for  drinking,  cooking,  washing  dishes,  etc.,  should  always  be 
boiled  before  using,  and  when  Cholera  is  prevalent  all  persons 
should  avoid  eating  uncooked  fruit,  fresh  vegetables  and  ice. 

4.  Discharges  of  all  kinds,  from  the  Mouth,  Nose,  Bladder  and 
Boicels  of  patients  suffering  from  contagious  diseases,  should  be 
received  into  glass  or  earthen  vessels  containing  the  Carbolic  Solu- 
tion or  Milk  of  Lime,  or  they  should  be  removed  on  pieces  of 
cloth,  which  are  immediately  burnt  or  immersed  in  one  of  these 
solutions.  Special  care  should  be  observed  to  disinfect  at  once 
the  vomited  matter  and  the  intestinal  discharges  from  Cholera 
patients,  as  these  alone  contain  the  dangerous  germs.  In  Typhoid 
Fever  the  intestinal  discharges  and  urine,  and  in  Diphtheria, 
Measles  and  Scarlet  Fever  the  discharges  from  the  throat  and 
nose  all  bring  about  infection  and  should  be  treated  in  the 
same  manner.  The  volume  of  the  solution  used  to  disinfect  dis- 
charges should  be,  with  the  Carbolic  Solution,  at  least  twice  as 
great  as  that  of  the  discharge,  or  with  Milk  of  Lime  from  four 
to  five  times  as  great.  After  standing  for  an  hour  or  more,  the 
disinfecting  solution,  with  the  discharges,  may  be  thrown  into 
the  water-closet.  Cloths,  towels,  napkins,  bedding,  or  clothing 
soiled  by  the  discharges  must  be  at  once  placed  in  the  Carbolic 
Solution  and  the  hands  of  the  attendants  disinfected  as  described 
above.  In  convalescence  from  Measles  and  Scarlet  Fever  the 
scales  from  the  skin  (peeling)  are  also  carriers  of  infection.  To 
prevent  the  dissemination  of  disease  by  means  of  these  scales,  the 
skin  should  be  carefully  washed  daily  in  warm  water  and  soap. 
The  external  use  of  vaseline  for  the  same  purpose  is  recommended. 
After  use,  the  soapsuds  should  be  thrown  into  the  water-closet  and 
the  vessel  rinsed  out  with  Carbolic  Solution. 

The  ordinary  house  filtration  of  water  does  not  remove  all  the 
germs  of  disease,  and  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  render  the  water 
safe  in  time  of  danger. 

The  intestinal  discharges  (feces)  need  special  treatment  on  ac- 
count of  the  difficulty  with  which  the  disinfectant  fluids  penetrate 
to  all  portions.  To  thoroughly  disinfect  a  mass  of  feces,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  add  to  it  double  its  amount  of  one  of  the  strong  disinfect- 


METHODS  OF  DISINFECTION. 


293 


ing  solutions  and  allow  it  to  soak  for  twelve  hours.    If  desired 
to  hasten  the  process,  the  fecal  matter  covered  by  a  carbolic  acid  - 
or  formalin»solution  can  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  disinfectant, 
allowed  to  stand  for  one  hour  or  thoroughly  disinfected  by  boiling 
for  thirty  minutes. 

5.  The  Sputum  from  Consumptive  Patients. — The  importance  of 
the  proper  disinfection  of  the  sputum  (expectoration)  from  con- 
sumptive patients  is  little  understood.  Consumption  is  a  con- 
tagious disease,  and  is  always  the  result  of  transmission  from  the 
sick  to  the  healthy  or  from  animals  to  man.  The  sputum  con- 
tains the  germs  which  cause  the  disease,  and  in  gi-eat  majority  of 
eases  is  the  source  of  infection.  After  being  discharged,  unless 
properly  disposed  of,  it  may  become  dry  and  pulverized  and  float 
in  the  air  as  dust.  This  dust  contains  the  germs  and  is  the  com- 
mon cause  of  the  disease  through  inhalation.  In  all  eases,  there- 
fore, the  sputum  should  be  disinfected  when  discharged.  It  should 
be  received  into  covered  cups  containing  the  Carbolic,  Lysol,  or 
Formalin  Solutions,  Handkerchiefs  soiled  by  it  should  be  burned 
or  soaked  in  the  Carbolic  Solution  and  then  boiled.  Dust  from 
the  walls,  mouldings,  pictures,  etc.,  in  rooms  that  have  been  oc- 
cupied hy  consumptive  patients,  contains  the  genns,  and  will 
produce  tuberculosis  in  animals  when  used  for  their  inoculation. 
Therefore,  rooms  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected  before  they 
are  again  occupied.  Rooms  in  which  consumptives  are  living 
should  never  be  dusted  with  a  dry  cloth  or  brush,  but  should  al- 
ways be  cleaned  by  wiping  furniture,  mantels,  etc.,  with  a  damp 
cloth.  This  should  afterward  be  burnt  or  disinfected  by  soaking 
in  the  Carbolic  or  Chlorinated  Lime  Solution,  or  by  boiling  in 
the  Weak  Soda  Solution  for  half  an  hour.  Carpets  should  be 
swept  with  a  broom  wrapped  in  a  damp  cloth,  the  latter  being 
aftenvard  disinfected  as  above.  If  the  sputum  of  all  consumptive 
patients  were  destroyed  at  once  when  discharged,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  cases  of  the  disease  would  be  prevented. 

6.  Closets,  Kitchen  and  Hallway  Sinks,  etc. — Each  time  the 
closet  is  used  for  infected  discharges,  one  pint  of  the  Carbolic  Solu- 
tion should  be  poured  into  the  pan  (after  it  is  emptied)  and  al- 
lowed to  remain  there.  All  discharges  should  be  disinfected  before 
being  thrown  into  the  closet.  Sinks  should  be  flushed  at  least 
once  daily. 

7.  Dishes,  Knives,  Forks,  Spoons,  etc.,  used  by  a  patient  should 


294 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


be  kept  for  his  exclusive  use,  and  not  removed  from  the  room. 
They  should  be  boiled  or  washed  first  in  the  Carbolic  Solution, 
then  in  hot  Soap-su.ds,  and  finally  rinsed  in  hot  water.  These 
washing  fluids  should  afterward  be  thrown  into  the  water-closet. 
The  remains  of  the  patient's  meals  may  be  burned  or  thrown  into 
a  vessel  containing  one  of  the  disinfectant  solutions  and  allowed 
to  stand  for  one  hour  before  being  thrown  away. 

8.  Rooms  and  their  Contents. — Rooms  which  have  been  occupied 
by  persons  suff'ering  from  contagious  disease  should  not  be  again 
occupied  until  they  have  been  thoroughly  disinfected  by  the  Health 
Department  and  renovated  by  the  owner.  For  this  purpose  either 
careful  fumigation  with  sulphur  or  formaldehyde  gas  will  be  em- 
ployed, or  one  of  these  combined  with  the  following  procedure: 
Carpets,  curtains  and  upholstered  furniture  which  have  been  soiled 
by  discharges,  or  which  have  been  exposed  to  infection  in  the 
room  during  the  illness,  will  be  removed  for  disinfection  by  steam. 
Woodwork,  floors  and  plain  furniture  will  be  thoroughly  washed 
with  the  Soap-suds  and  Bichloride  Solutions. 

Books,  leather  articles  and  those  which  are  readily  discolored, 
will  be  removed  by  the  Department  and  disinfected  by  exposing 
them  for  12  hours  to  fonnaldehyde  vapor  in  a  small  chamber. 

9.  Rags,  Clothes  and  Articles  of  S7nall  Value,  which  have  been 
soiled  by  discharges  or  infected  in  other  ways,  should  be  burned. 

10.  In  Case  of  Death,  the  body  should  be  completely  wrapped  ' 
in  several  thicknesses  of  cloth  wrung  out  of  the  Carbolic  or  Bi- 
chloride Solution  and  placed  in  an  hermetically  pealed  coffin. 

If  notified,  the  Department  of  Health  of  New  York  City  will 
disinfect  rooms  and  their  contents  without  cost  to  the  tenant, 
after  the  rooms  have  been  vacated  by  persons  convalescent  from 
any  contagious  disease.  Notification  should  be  sent  to  the  Chief 
Inspector  of  Contagious  Diseases,  Sixth  Avenue  and  Fifty-fifth 
Street.    Telephone  Call,  No.  1204  Columbus. 

It  is  important  to  remember  that  an  abundance  of  fresh  air, 
sunlight  and  absolute  cleanliness  not  only  helps  protect  the  attend- 
ants from  infection,  but  also  aids  in  the  recovery  of  the  sick.  Sun- 
light is  one  of  the  most  effective  disinfectants  known,  killing  all 
germs  directly  exposed  to  it  within  a  few  hours. 


METHODS  OF  DISINFECTION. 


295 


METHODS  OF  CLEANLINESS  AND  DISINFECTION  TO  PRE- 
v^ENT  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  ILLNESS. 

1.  Water-closet  Bowls  and  all  Receptacles  for  Human  excrement 
should  be  kept  perfectly  clean  by  frequent  flushing  with  a  large 
quantity  of  water,  and  as  often  as  necessary  disinfected  with  the 
Carbolic  or  Chlorinated  Lime  Solutions.  The  woodwork  around 
and  beneath  them  should  be  frequently  scrubbed  with  the  hot 
Soap-suds  Solution. 

2.  Sinks  and  the  Woodwork  around  and  the  floor  beneath  them 
should  be  frequently  and  thoroughly  scrubbed  with  the  hot  Soap- 
suds Solution. 

3.  School  Sinks. — School  sinks  should  be  thoroughly  flushed  with 
a  large  quantity  of  water  at  least  twice  daily,  and  should  be 
carefully  cleaned  twice  a  week  or  oftener  by  scrubbing.  Several 
quarts  of  the  Carbolic  or  Chlorinated  Lime  Solutions  should  be 
frequently  thrown  in  the  sink  after  it  has  been  flushed. 

4.  Cesspools  and  Privy  Yaults. — An  abundance  of  Milk  of  Lime, 
Dry  Chloride  of  Lime  or  Chlorinated  Lime  Solution  (at  least 
four  times  the  amount  of  the  excreta  to  be  disinfected),  should 
be  thrown  into  these  daily,  and  their  contents  should  be  frequently 
removed. 

5.  Cellars  and  Rooms  in  Cellars  are  to  be  frequently  white- 
washed, and,  if  necessary,  the  floors  sprinkled  with  fresh,  dry 
Chloride  of  Lime.  Areas  and  Paved  Yards  should  be  cleaned, 
scrubbed,  and,  if  necessary,  washed  with  the  Bichloride  Solution. 
Street  Gutters  and  Drains  should  be  cleaned,  and  when  necessary 
sprinkled  with  Chloride  of  Lime  or  washed  with  Milk  of  Lime. 

6.  Air  Shafts. — Air  shafts  should  be  first  cleaned  thoroughly, 
and  then  whitewashed.  To  prevent  tenants  throwing  garbage 
down  air  shafts,  it  is  advisable  to  put  wire  netting  outside  of 
windows  opening  on  shafts.  Concrete  or  asphalt  bottoms  of  shafts 
should  be  cleaned  and  washed  with  the  Bichloride  Solution,  or 
sprinkled  with  Chloride  of  Lime. 

7.  Hydrant  Sinks,  Garbage  Receptacles,  and  Garbage  and  Oyster- 
sJiells  Shutes  and  Receptacles  should  be  cleaned  daily,  and 
sprinkled  with  dry  Chloride  of  Lime. 

8.  Refrigerators  and  the  Surfaces  around  and  beneath  them. 
Dumb-waiters,  etc.,  may  be  cleaned  by  scrubbing  them  with  the 
hot  Soap-suds  Solution. 


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HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION 


9.  Traps. — All  traps  should  be  flushed  daily  with  an  abundance 
of  water.  If  at  any  time  they  become  foul,  they  may  be  cleaned 
by  pouring  considerable  quantities  of  the  hot  Strong  Soda  Solu- 
tion into  them,  followed  by  the  Carbolic  Solution. 

10.  Urinals  and  the  Floors  around  and  underneath  them  should 
be  cleaned  twice  daily  with  the  hot  Soap-suds  Solution,  and  in 
addition  to  this,  if  offensive,  they  may  be  disinfected  with  the 
Carbolic  Solution. 

11.  Stable  Floors  and  Manure  Vaults. — Stable  floors  should  be 
kept  clean  and  occasionally  washed  with  the  hot  Soap-suds,  or 
the  hot  Strong  Soda  Solution.  Powdered  fresh  Chloride  of  Lime 
may  be  used  in  manure  vaults. 

12.  Vacant  Rooms  should  be  frequently  aired. 

13.  The  Woodwork  in  School-houses  should  be  scrubbed  weekly 
with  hot  Soap-suds.  This  refers  to  floors,  doors,  door-handles,  and 
all  woodw^ork  touched  by  the  scholars'  hands. 

14.  Spittoons  in  all  Public  Places,  should  be  emptied  daily  and 
washed  with  the  hot  Weak  Soda  or  Soap-suds  Solution,  after 
which  a  small  quantity  of  the  Carbolic  Solution  or  Milk  of  Lime 
should  be  put  in  the  vessel  to  receive  the  expectoration. 

15.  Elevated  and  Surface  Cars,  Ferry-boats  and  Public  Convey- 
ances.— ^The  floors,  door-handles,  railings  and  all  parts  touched  by 
the  hands  of  passengers  should  be  washed  frequently  with  the 
hot  Weak  Soda  or  Soap-suds  Solution.  Slat-mats  from  cars,  etc., 
should  be  cleaned  by  scrubbing  with  a  stiff  brush  in  the  hot  Soap- 
suds Solution. 

Use  of  Bromine  Solution  as  a  Deodorant. 

Slaughter-houses,  Butchers'  Ice-boxes  and  Wagons,  Trenches, 
Excavations,  Stable  Floors,  Manure  Vaults,  Dead  Animals,  Offal, 
Offal  Docks,  etc.,  may  be  deodorized  by  a  weak  Solution  of  Bro- 
mine which  is  a  valuable  agent  for  this  purpose.  The  Bromine 
Solution,  hoAvever,  is  only  temporary  in  its  action,  and  must  be 
used  repeatedly.  It  should  be  applied  by  sprinkling.  Although 
somewhat  corrosive  in  its  action  on  metals,  it  is  otherwise  harm- 
less. 

The  Solution  of  Bromine  must  be  prepared  with  great  care,  as 
the  pure  bromine  from  which  it  is  made  is  dangerous.  It  is  very 
caustic  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  skin;  it  is  volatile  and 
its  fumes  are  extremely  irritating  if  inhaled.    In  preparing  thi§ 


METHODS  OF  DISINFECTION, 


297 


solution  in  large  quantities,  a  pound  bottle  of  bromine  should  be 
dropped  into  a  barrel  containing  forty  or  fifty  gallons  of  water, 
and  then  broken  under  water  with  an  iron  bar.  The  solution  is 
completed  by  thoroughly  stirring.  To  prepare  a  smaller  quan- 
tity an  ounce  bottle  of  bromine  may  be  dropped  into  a  pail  con- 
taining three  or  four  gallons  of  water,  and  broken  in  the  same 
way  and  with  the  same  care. 


Conclusion. 

The  general  principles  of  disinfection  outlined  in  this  circular 
may  be  applied  for  the  disinfection  of  all  articles  not  specifically 
treated  of,  and  which  are  similar  in  character  to  those  considered. 


V. 


MILK  INSPECTION. 

EXTRACT  FROM  A  PAPER  BY  DR.  HERMAN  BETZ,  CHIEF  INSPEC- 
TOR DIVISION  OF  FOOD  AND  OFFENSIVE  TRADES  INSPECTION 
OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  HEALTH,  NEW  YOKR. 

The  milk-inspector  is  on  duty,  technically,  all  the  time;  he 
may  be  called  upon  at  any  hour,  day  or  night,  Sundays  as  well 
as  on  week-days,  for  it  is  obvious  that  a  dishonestly  inclined 
milk-dealer,  who  behaves  himself  during  the  week,  should  not 
be  left  under  the  impression  that  he  can  do  as  he  pleases  on  Sun- 
day. 

The  milk-inspector  is  obliged  to  spend  from  9  a.m.  to  4  p.m. 
in  actual  inspections,  after  which  he  writes  out  a  daily  report  of 
every  place  visited  by  him  during  the  day,  giving  the  time  by 
hour  and  minute,  the  name  and  address  of  the  milk-dealer,  the 
permit  number  under  which  the  dealer  does  business,  and  the 
temperature  and  lactometer  standing  of  the  milk  so  examined. 

The  report  must  be  in  the  Chief  Inspector's  hands  by  9  a.m. 
each  day.  On  Monday  morning  a  weekly  report  also  is  handed  in 
giving  the  number  of  inspections  made  each  day,  as  well  as  the 
total  number  for  the  week,  his  attendance  at  court,  and  arrests 
and  fines  also  must  be  carefully  recorded. 

The  following  instruments  and  utensils  are  supplied  to  the 
milk-inspector,  which  he  carries  about  with  him  in  a  suitable 
satchel: 

A  lactometer;  a  thermometer  (dairy  style) ;  a  cylinder  of  tin 
in  which  to  float  the  lactometer;  lead  seals  and  wire  for  sealing 
sample-bottles  of  milk;  one  seal  punch  with  two  dies,  one  im- 
pressing the  lead  with  "  Health  Department,  Manhattan,"  the 
other  with  the  inspector's  letter  which  has  been  given  him  for 
his  identification  as  A,  B,  C,  or  D,  etc.;  a  writing  diamond,  to 
mark  sample-bottles;  six-ounce  bottles  with  two  holes  in  neck 
opposite  each  other,  through  which  the  wire  is  passed  holding  the 

298 


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299 


cork  immovable,  unless  the  seal  and  wire  are  disturbed,  for  deal- 
er's sample;  four-ounce  bottles  for  samples  of  milk  for  analysis 
at  laboratory;  one  box  of  labels,  gummed  on  back,  for  marking 
above  sample  vrith  inspection  number,  sample  number  and  lacto- 
meter standing  at  60°  F.;  a  book  of  50  labels  to  mark  dealer's 
sample,  as  also  a  stub  corresponding  with  same,  which  is  after- 
ward attached  to  the  analysis  report;  a  book  in  which  is  reported 
the  year,  month,  day,  hour  and  minute  when  inspection  is  made, 
the  number  of  inspection,  the  name  and  address  of  the  dealer, 
number  of  years  in  business,  number  of  quarts  sold  per  day,  num- 
ber of  permit  under  which  business  is  done,  name  and  address  of 
the  wholesale  milk-dealer  from  whom  he  receives  his  supply,  the 
gross  and  net  lactometer  standing  and  the  temperature  of  the 
milk  examined,  also  physical  properties,  odor,  taste  and  appear- 
ance, the  name  of  person  present  when  examination  is  made, 
whether  proprietor  of  store  or  representative,  and,  lastly,  the 
mark  which  is  found  on  top  of  cover  of  milk-can. 

The  mode  of  inspection  is  as  follo^vs:  When  an  inspector  en- 
ters a  place  where  milk  is  sold  he  announces  this  fact  to  the 
proprietor  of  the  place,  or  his  representative.  After  he  has  sat- 
isfied himself  that  the  milk  is  properly  cooled  and  utensils  for 
measuring  are  clean,  he  stirs  the  milk  thoroughly,  fills  a  tin 
cylinder  within  two  inches  of  the  rim,  leaving  room  for  displace- 
ment by  lactometer;  the  lactometer  is  then  carefully  lowered  into 
the  milk,  care  being  taken  that  the  stem  is  dry.  While  the  lac- 
tometer is  allowed  to  come  to  rest,  the  thermometer  is  used  to 
carefully  note  the  temperature,  this  and  the  lactometer's  read- 
ing are  carefully  entered  in  the  inspection-book  and  for  every 
three  degrees  of  temperature  below  60°  F.  one  degree  is  deducted 
on  the  lactometer,  or  added  if  the  temperature  is  above  60°  F. 
Should  the  milk  present  a  good  appearance  and  stand  somewhere 
between  108  and  112°  on  the  lactometer  at  60°  F.,  the  milk-in- 
spector will  pronounce  the  milk  good,  but  if  the  milk  should  stand 
below  108  or  above  112°  net  on  the  lactometer,  and  not  be  of  good 
physical  appearance,  he  will  consider  the  milk  suspicious  and  pro- 
ceed to  take  a  sample  from  same. 

A  six-ounce  bottle  is  filled  up  within  a  short  space  below 
the  neck  to  allow  sufficient  room  for  expansion  and  the  cork 
forced  in  well  below  the  two  perforations  mentioned  above.  A 
wire  is  then  passed  through  the  orifice  in  the  bottle,  forced 


300 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


through  the  cork  and  out  through  the  opposite  perforation  in  the 
bottle,  and  then  wound  twice  around  the  neck  of  the  bottle  and 
over  the  groove  in  the  lead-seal,  which  is  then  forced  down  over 
the  wire  by  the  punch  until  it  presents  a  quite  flat  appearance 
with  the  imprint  on  both  sides,  as  described  above,  and  from 
which  the  wire  cannot  be  removed  without  destroying  the  seal  and 
imprint.  The  sample  is  then  labelled  with  the  part  of  page  which 
corresponds  with  the  stub  described,  and  which  is  gummed  on  the 
reverse  side.  Both  stub  and  label  are  counterparts  of  each  other 
bearing  number  of  inspection,  date,  name  and  address  of  dealer, 
reason  for  taking  sample,  inspector's  name  and  the  number  of 
sample.  This  bottle  is  then  sealed  and  labelled  as  described  above, 
and  handed  to  the  dealer  or  his  representative,  to  be  held  by  him, 
or  to  be  given  to  a  chemist  for  analysis  if  he  so  chooses.  This 
is  now  done  but  seldom,  dealers,  both  wholesale  and  retail,  are 
so  convinced  of  the  absolute  correctness  with  which  analyses  are 
made  at  the  Department  laboratory,  that  they  usually  instruct 
their  lawyers  to  concede  the  analysis.  The  four-ounce  square 
bottle  is  now  filled  with  some  of  the  same,  milk,  and  to  this  is 
attached  a  square  stick-label  bearing  Inspection  and  sample  num- 
ber, as  well  as  inspector's  letter  described  before.  The  inspector 
now  proceeds  to  the  laboratory  of  the  Department.  When  he 
arrives  there  he  will  hand  the  sample  bottle  to  the  chemist  or  as- 
sistant chemist  in  charge,  who  will  sign  a  receipt  for  same  on  a 
ticket  made  out  by  the  milk-inspector,  on  which  are  again  given 
the  milk-dealer's  permit  number,  year,  month,  day,  hour  and 
minute  of  inspection,  but  the  space  for  the  milk-dealer's  name 
and  address  is  left  blank  for  the  time  being;  the  ticket  also  gives 
the  wholesale  dealer's  name  and  address  from  whom  the  retailer 
receives  his  supply,  and  the  number  of  specimens  of  milk  examined, 
their  standing  both  by  lactometer,  thermometer,  and  net,  also 
physical  appearance.  As  this  ticket  is  used  by  the  inspector 
on  the  stand  in  trials  to  refresh  his  memory,  it  is  made  out  with 
great  care,  and  gives  in  addition  to  the  above  facts  the  recorded 
numbers  of  the  instruments  used,  for  it  has  happened  in  some 
important  trials  that  the  correctness  of  the  instruments  has  been 
questioned.  For  this  reason,  as  soon  as  a  lot  of  lactometers  or 
thermometers  is  received  from  the  manufacturer,  they  are  care- 
fully tested  in  our  laboratory;  if  they  come  up  to  the  standard 
they  are  accepted,  numbered,  and  the  record  of  the  same  is  kept 


MILK  INSPECTION. 


301 


at  the  Chief  Inspectors  oflice;  if  they  are  found  to  vary  percep- 
tibly they  are  rejected.  The  same  ticket  also  records  the  fact 
whether  the  can  from  which  the  sample  has  been  taken  was  wired, 
the  amount  of  milk  the  can  contained,  the  fact  that  the  milk 
had  been  stirred  by  the  proprietor  or  his  representative,  the  marks 
found  on  shoulder  and  cover  of  can,  the  location  of  the  can  in  the 
store  or  place  in  which  the  milk  was  sold;  whether  the  can  con- 
tained a  dipper,  whether  this  inspection  was  made  on  the  regular 
routine  inspection  or  upon  a  complaint  from  a  citizen,  the  total 
number  of  cans  examined  at  that  particular  inspection,  the  name 
of  the  witness  present  at  the  time  of  inspection,  and  also  a  space 
in  which  to  record  the  date  on  which  the  wan-ant  was  obtained. 
In  case  of  prosecution  the  number  of  the  City  Magistrate's  Court, 
the  date,  when,  and  the  amount  of  bail  obtained,  and,  finally,  the 
Court  in  which  the  ease  was  tried  and  the  amount  of  fine  paid  or 
the  disposition  of  the  case,  whether  dismissed  altogether  or  sen- 
tence suspended.  All  this  is  recorded  on  the  front  of  the  ticket; 
on  the  reverse  side  is  given,  first,  the  receipt  of  the  chemist  for 
the  sample,  then  the  analysis  as  follows: 

Water,  per  cent.;  total  solids,  per  cent.;  fat,  per  cent.;  solids 
not  fat,  per  cent.;  per  cent,  low  in  solids;  per  cent,  low  in  fat; 
borax,  present  or  absent;  salicylic  acid,  present  or  absent;  formal- 
dehyde, present  or  absent ;  reaction,  acid  or  alkaline. 

The  name  of  the  assistant  chemist  who  has  performed  the  an- 
alysis is  also  given  and  is  countersigned  by  the  chemist.  This 
completes  the  ticket,  as  far  as  the  inspector  can  complete  it,  at 
that  particular  stage.  The  ticket,  with  the  stub,  is  then  handed 
to  the  clerk  in  charge  of  milk  analyses  in  the  Chief  Inspector's 
office,  which  ends  the  milk-inspector's  duty  for  the  present  as  far 
as  this  particular  sample  is  concerned.  The  clerk  in  charge  of 
milk  analyses,  just  mentioned,  enters  up  all  the  facts  given  in  a 
book  in  which  spaces  are  provided  for  all  the  facts  given  above; 
the  ticket  is  then  placed  in  an  envelope  with  others  which  may 
come  in  on  the  same  day,  giving  the  exact  time  when  received 
from  the  inspectors,  when  fonvarded  to  the  laboratory  and  when 
received  back  again.  After  forty-eight  hours  the  analysis  is  fin- 
ished, and  the  chemist  will  then  fill  up  the  space  provided  for 
percentages  of  water,  total  solids,  fat,  etc.,  and  whether  the  milk 
has  been  found  unadulterated  or  short  in  total  solids  or  fat,  giving 
the  exact  amount.    The  ticket  is  then  immediately  returned  by 


302 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION, 


the  chemist  to  tlie  clerk  in  charge  of  milk  analysis,  who  enters 
up  all  the  various  facts  found  by  the  chemist  and  then  fills  in  the 
name  and  address  of  dealer  from  the  stub.  The  ticket  is  now 
ready  for  the  Chief  Inspector,  who  will  determine  by  the  percentage 
of  fat  OT  total  solids  shortage  whether  an  arrest  is  to  be  made 
or  not.  The  rule  followed  at  present  is  that  the  dealer  is  to  have 
the  benefit  of  the  doubt  up  to  four  per  cent,  of  solids  and  nine 
per  cent,  of  fat,  but  if  the  shortage  is  five  per  cent,  or  over  in 
total  solids,  ot  a  shortage  of  ten  per  cent,  or  over  of  fat,  prose- 
cution is  at  once  to  be  started;  such  tickets  are,  therefore,  signed 
by  the  Chief  Inspector  and  stamped  "  Arrest "  or  "  Do  not  arrest," 
and  after  the  ticket  has  been  countersigned  by  the  Sanitary  Su- 
perintendent the  clerk  in  charge  of  milk  analyses  will  notify  the 
milk-inspector  that  a  ticket  is  awaiting  him  at  the  office  for  ar- 
rest. The  milk-inspector  upon  receipt  of  the  ticket  prepares  an 
affidavit  of  the  facts  in  the  ease,  and  asks  for  a  warrant  for  the 
milk-dealer's  arrest  in  the  City  Magistrate's  Court  in  whose  dis- 
trict the  violation  has  taken  place.  This  warrant  is  usually 
granted,  and  a  day  of  hearing  is  set;  the  warrant  is  served  by  a 
court  officer  in  as  inoffensive  a  manner  as  possible;  that  is,  by 
simply  notifying  the  dealer  that  his  presence  is  required  in  the 
court  to  which  the  officer  is  attached,  for  violation  of  the  Sanitary 
Code  by  selling  adulterated  milk,  and  that  probably  it  would  be 
best  for  the  dealer  to  bring  with  him  a  bondsman.  At  the  day 
and  hour  set  for  the  hearing  the  milk-inspector  states  his  case  and 
requests  that  the  defendant  be  held  under  bond  for  trial  in  Special 
Sessions.  The  City  Magistrate  usually  names  a  bail  amount  of 
$100,  which  the  milk-dealer  furnishes  through  a  friend,  or  in  many 
cases  the  wholesale  dealer  who  has  furnished  the  milk  furnishes 
the  bail.  If  the  defendant  is  represented  by  counsel,  the  counsel 
frequently  requests  a  hearing,  but  the  outcome  is  usually  the 
same.  After  a  lapse  of  but  a  short  time  the  case  is  set  down  for 
trial  at  Special  Sessions,  where  the  judges  without  exception 
have  taken  great  interest  in  these  milk  cases;  some  of  them  even 
have  taken  the  trouble  to  inform  themselves  of  the  various  stages 
of  analysis,  being  present  during  an  actual  analysis  at  the  lab- 
oratory. They  are  well  posted  in  relation  to  the  provisions  of  the 
Sanitary  Code  and  the  agricultural  laws  of  this  State  relating  to 
milk  and  dairy  matters,  total  solids,  fat,  solids  not  fat,  the  name 
of  antiseptics  and  like  terms  and  their  meanings,  which  are  usually 


MILK  INSPECTION. 


303 


so  puzzling  to  outsiders,  and  even  lawyers  who  try  these  cases 
understand  them  as  well  as  any  chemist.  It  is  directly  due  to 
this  intimate  knowledge  of  terms,  facts  and  matters  connected 
with  the  scientific  part  of  milk  analysis,  and  the  recognition  of 
the  earnest  efforts  of  the  Health  Department  to  improve  the  milk 
supply  of  the  City  of  New  York,  that  it  has  been  able  to  carry 
on  milk-inspection  with  satisfactory  results;  for  what  would  all 
this  work  amount  to  did  not  the  courts  so  ably  and  conscientiously 
carry  out  their  part. 

Since  1896  the  Department  of  Health  has  required  every  dealer 
in  milk  to  take  out  a  permit,  in  order  to  better  regulate  the  care 
of  milk  and  enforce  the  Sanitary  Code. 


VI. 


INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  SCHOOL  INSPECTORS, 
OF  THE  HEALTH  DEPARTMENT  OF  NEW  YORK. 

Inspectors  are  required  to  report  at  the  schools  to  which  they 
have  been  assigned  from  8.50  to  9.30  a.m.  every  day  that  school 
sessions  are  held. 

They  are  to  carefully  examine  each  child  that  has  been  isolated 
by  the  teachers  in  charge  of  the  scholars,  and  cause  to  be  ex- 
cluded from  school  each  one  affected  with  or  showing  symptoms 
of  any  contagious  or  infectious  disease,  more  especially  the  fol- 
lowing: Measles,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  croup,  whooping  cough, 
mumps,  contagions  eye  diseases,  parasitic  diseases  of  the  head  or 
body,  or  chicken-pox.  They  shall  furnish  each  pupil  that  is  to 
be  excluded  with  a  printed  card,  upon  which  they  shall  note  the 
date,  name  and  location  of  the  school;  name,  age  and  address  of 
the  child,  and  the  reason  for  its  exclusion.  These  cards,  signed 
by  the  Medical  School  Inspectors,  are  to  be  taken  home  by  the 
excluded  pupils.  Each  day,  before  leaving  a  school,  each  Inspector 
is  required  to  fill  out  a  printed  daily  report  blank,  giving  the 
date  and  time  of  visit;  the  name,  location,  district  and  card  num- 
bers of  the  school;  the  number  of  children  examined  (male,  female 
and  total),  the  full  name,  age  and  address  of  each  one  excluded, 
with  the  diagnosis  of  each  excluded  case.  Note  is  also  to  be 
made  on  the  daily  report  of  any  culture  that  has  been  taken, 
giving  the  clinical  diagnosis  and  stating  whether  the  pupil  was 
excluded  or  not.  On  the  last  school  day  of  each  week  the  printed 
summary  blank  on  the  back  of  the  daily  report  blank  used  that 
day  is  to  be  properly  filled  out  for  each  school  day  of  that  week. 
Each  day,  as  soon  as  possible  after  leaving  the  last  school  to  be 
visited.  Inspectors  are  required  to  mail  a  separate  daily  report 
(properly  folded  and  "backed")  for  each  school  visited,  to  the 
Chief  Inspector  at  the  Central  Office,  where  a  daily  summary  is 
made  of  the  work  performed  in  all  of  the  schools  visited. 

All  children  excluded  from  school  for  measles  or  scarlet  fever  are 

304 


MEDICAL  SCHOOL  INSPECTORS. 


305 


visited  at  their  homes  within  twenty-four  hours  by  one  of  the 
Diagnosticians  of  the  Board,  and  such  cases  are  not  tabulated  as 
true  ones  unless  he  confirms  the  diagnosis,  when  a  Department 
postal  card  is  sent  to  the  school,  excluding  the  child  until  after  its 
complete  recovery,  and  when  the  necessary  disinfection  and  fumi- 
gation of  the  rooms  where  it  lives  have  been  attended  to,  a  cer- 
tificate allowing  it  to  return  to  school  is  issued. 

Pupils  excluded  for  chicken-pox  are  visited  at  their  homes  by 
the  Medical  Inspectors  of  the  Division  of  Contagious  Diseases 
having  charge  of  the  districts  in  which  the  children  live;  when 
they  confirm  the  diagnosis,  the  cases  are  recorded  as  true  ones, 
and  the  schools  notified  by  Department  postal  cards. 

In  cases  of  suspicious  diphtheria,  when  there  is  well-marked 
clinical  evidence  in  the  throat  at  the  time  of  the  examination,  the 
child  is  to  be  excluded  after  a  culture  has  been  taken;  when  the 
clinical  evidence  is  not  well  marked,  a  culture  is  to  be  taken,  but 
the  child  is  not  to  be  excluded  until  a  report  is  received  by  the 
Medical  School  Inspector  from  the  Division  of  Bacteriology,  stating 
that  an  examination  of  the  culture  shows  the  presence  of  the  Klebs- 
Loeffler  bacilli. 

In  each  case,  where  an  examination  of  a  culture  taken  by  a 
Medical  School  Inspector  shows  the  presence  of  the  Klebs-Loeffler 
bacilli,  a  notice  to  that  effect  is  promptly  mailed  to  the  maker 
of  the  culture,  and  also  to  the  Medical  Inspector  of  the  Division 
of  Contagious  Diseases  in  whose  district  the  child  resides,  who  then 
takes  charge  of  the  case  as  far  as  the  proper  isolation  is  con- 
cerned, taking  subsequent  necessary  cultures,  ordering  disinfection 
and  fumigation  when  the  Klebs-Loeffler  bacilli  have  disappeared 
from  the  throat,  and  issuing  certificates  for  the  child's  return  to 
Bchool. 

The  District  Medical  Inspectors  have  the  same  surveillance  over 
each  case  of  measles  or  scarlet  fever  where  the  diagnosis  made  by 
the  School  Inspector  has  been  confirmed  by  a  Diagnostician.  When 
the  result  of  an  examination  of  a  culture  made  by  a  School  In- 
spector is  negative,  a  report  to  that  effect  is  forwarded  to  the  Chief 
Inspector,  but  not  to  the  maker  of  the  culture. 

When  the  examination  of  a  culture  made  by  a  School  Inspector 
does  not  admit  of  an  exact  bacteriological  diagnosis  and  a  prompt 
confirmatory  culture  is  requested,  such  request  will  be  mailed  to 
the  maker  of  the  culture,  and  also  to  the  District  Medical  In- 


306 


HANDBOOK  ON  SANITATION. 


spector,  in  order  that  a  confirmatory  culture  may  be  taken — by 
the  former,  if  the  child  is  at  school,  or  by  the  latter,  if  the  child 
should  be  at  home.  All  cultures  made  by  the  School  Inspectors, 
accompanied  by  the  "  culture  blanks,"  properly  filled  out  and 
signed,  should  be  promptly  forwarded  to  the  nearest  culture  sta- 
tion. 

Children  excluded  on  account  of  whooping  cough,  mumps,  con- 
tagious eye  diseases,  parasitic  diseases,  etc.,  should  be  told  to 
return  when  cured,  and  should  be  again  examined  before  returning 
to  their  class-rooms;  if  not  entirely  well  they  should  be  again  ex- 
cluded. 

The  Inspectors  shall  ascertain  from  the  principals  and  teachers 
of  the  schools  the  names  and  addresses  of  all  children  having 
contagious  diseases  in  their  families,  where  notification  has  not 
been  sent  to  the  schools  by  the  Board  of  Health,  and  such  lists 
shall  be  forwarded  with  the  daily  reports.  Inspectors  shall  keep 
a  daily  record  in  a  blank  book,  furnished  for  such  purposes,  of  the 
number  of  children  examined  (male,  female,  and  total),  the  full 
names,  ages,  residences  and  causes  for  exclusion  of  those  excluded 
from  school,  and  a  list  of  cultures  taken  and  forwarded. 

If,  by  reason  of  illness  or  other  cause,  an  Inspector  is  unable 
to  report  at  a  school,  arrangements  must  be  made  with  an  Inspec- 
tor of  another  school  to  act  as  a  substitute,  and  the  Chief  In- 
spector informed  of  the  facts  without  unnecessary  delay. 

If,  in  the  opinion  of  an  Inspector,  immediate  action  should  be 
taken  by  the  Board  of  Health  in  any  case,  he  should  immediately 
communicate  by  telephone  with  the  Chief  Inspector. 

Medical  School  Inspectors  shall  report  at  the  Central  Office 
once  during  each  month,  the  time  to  be  designated  by  the  Chief 
Inspector.  Exclusion  cards  for  pupils,  daily  report  blanks,  ad- 
dressed envelopes,  blank  books  for  recording  the  work  performed, 
wooden  tongue-depressors,  culture  outfits,  and  lists  of  culture 
stations,  will  be  furnished  at  the  office  of  the  Chief  Inspector. 

The  daily  duties  of  Medical  School  Inspectors  cease  when  they 
have  mailed  their  reports,  after  leaving  their  schools.  They  are 
not,  under  any  circumstances,  to  visit  children  at  their  homes,  to 
prescrihe  for  them,  or  suggest  treatment  at  the  schools.  The  treat- 
ment must  be  received  from  the  family  physicians,  in  ^he  dis- 
pensaries, or  in  the  hospitals. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Abbot,  S.  W   222 

Adulteration  of  food   158 

of  milk   104 

Air,  composition  of   13 

diseases  due  to   17 

essential  to  health   115 

ground    3 

hot,  furnace   37 

humidity,  temperature,  and  pressure   14 

influence  on  health   17 

impurities    15 

quantity  required   19 

sewer    63 

Anthracite  coal   146 

Anderson,  Dr   113 

Aqueducts,  Roman   44 

Artesian  wells   46 

Bacteria  5,  8,  9,  15 

Bakeries,    148 

drainage  and  plumbing  of   148 

hours  of  labor  in   148 

New  York  Labor  Law  on   I49 

rooms  in  ; .  _  149 

Pennsylvania  laws  on   I49 

water-closets  in   I49 

Banner,  drain  grenade   I09 

Basfments   126 

BatK-tubs    91 

307 


308 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Betz,  Dr.  M.,  on  horse-meat   162 

on  milk  inspection  ,   298 

Billings,  J.  S   219 

Boilers,  hot- water  system   39 

kitchen    92 

Boston  Board  of  Health  rules  on  lodging-houses   136 

number  of  inspectors   198 

Bramley,  Harry  viii,  80 

Calculation  of  areas  and  cubic  space   215 

Capillary  attraction    77 

Cellars,  in  bakeries   148 

causes  of  water  in   128 

cementing    10 

construction    10 

concrete   129 

conditions  for  occupying   128 

definition    134 

in  dwellings   128 

in  tenements   129 

Cigar-making  in  tenement-houses   138 

Cisterns  of  water-closets   96 

Cincinnati  Engineer  on  smoke  prevention   147 

Civil-service  examinations   200 

rules  and  regulations   201 

Chapin,  Dr.  Ch.  V  vii,  51,  136,  149,  171,  198 

Chimneys,  defects  in   32 

smoky    33 

Combustion   15,  17 

Cowl  ventilators  ;   29 

Cretinism    9 

Cremation   51 

Cubic  space  calculations   215 

Defects  in  plumbing   104 

Definitions,  basement   128 

cellar    128 

factory    141 

house-drain    67 

house-sewer    59 

infectious  diseases  ,   169 


INDEX.  309 

PAGE 

Definitions,  lodging-houses    136 

rain-leader    68 

sewage    5 

sewer   59 

soil    1 

soil-pipe    67 

trap    67 

tenement-house   117 

vent-pipe    67 

waste-pipe    67 

workshop    174 

Deodorant    174 

Disinfection   171,  174,  288 

Disposal  of  sewage   49 

Dwellings   134 

cellars  in   134 

plumbing  in   135 

Ellison's  air  bricks   25 

Extension  of  pipes   84 

Farr,  Dr   113 

Factory  Inspection   148 

Factories    141 

definition    141 

rooms  in   143 

water-closets  in   143 

ventilation   144 

Filtration,  of  water   48 

Food  adulteration   158 

laws    159 

Formaldehyde  as  a  disinfectant   175 

Fresh-air  inlet   87 

Galton's  grate   36 

Garbage    49 

Gerhardt  vi,  60 

Grates   ;   35 

Ground-air    3 

-moisture   4 

-water   2 

-temperature    4 


310 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Heat,  conductive   32 

convective    32 

radiant    32 

Hinke's  Bird  window   224 

Hopper  closets   95 

yard    100 

Horses,  amount  of  air  required   151 

cubic  space  required  for   151 

House  construction   10 

House-drain    79 

brick    126 

connections    82 

definition    67 

fall    82 

materials    82 

position    82 

size    79 

House-sewer    59 

Hudson's  peppermint  cartridge   110 

Infectious  diseases   169 

to  be  reported   170 

sanitary  code   171 

Interment  of  bodies   6 

Keen's  ventilator   25 

Kemp's  tester   109 

Lodging-houses    134 

definition    136 

dimensions    137 

Boston  rules   137 

New  York  rules   137 

ventilation    137 

Manure    152 

removal  in  Boston   152 

in  Jersey  City   152 

in  New  York   152 

Marsden,  H.  Sydney,  on  meat   160 

Materials  of  combustion   32 

Meat,  characteristics  of  good   160 

horse-    162 

Mercantile  establishments   145 


INDEX.  311 

PAGE 

Milk    164 

Milk  inspection   298 

Momentum,  cause  of  loss  of  seal  in  traps    7G 

MeKinnell's  Aentilator   27 

Js'otter  and  Firth   113 

New  York  Labor  law,  in  bakeries   148 

in  factories   144 

in  sweat-shops    139 

New  York  Sanitary  Code,  see  Sanitary  Code. 
New  York  Tenement-houses,  see  Tenement-houses. 

New  York,  number  of  inspectors   199 

Offensive  trades   15G 

Offensive  processes   157 

Overcrowding    130 

Overflows    92 

Pail  system   55 

Pan  closets  93,  128,  134 

Peppermint  test   108 

Philadelphia  hoppers   128 

Plunger  closets   95 

Plumbing    60 

in  bakeries   Ill 

defects    106 

Durham  system  ,   68 

in  dwellings   134 

in  factories   143 

materials,  uses  in   08 

pipes    79 

general  principles   66 

requisites  and  purposes   66 

rules  and  regulations  in  Xnw  York   271 

Plumbing  in  stables   151 

tenement-hoTise    126 

tests    106 

Pneumatic  system   55 

Precipitation    52 

Privy  vault   55 

Proper  construction  of  a  house   10 

Piihli'^  HeaUJi  Reeord  162,  185 

Rain-leader    88 


312 


ISDEX. 


PA(iE 

Ileceptacles    (-'^J 

Refrigerators    i^l 

Eichardson,  13.  V\'   Ill 

Safes    92 

Sanitation,  study  of   11 

as  a  profession   178 

Sanitary  Inspection,  art  of   187 

Inspectors,  compensation  for   ISO 

education  of   181 

examinations    200 

extracts  from  the  New  York  charter   194 

number  of,  in  various  cities  198,  199 

qualifications  for   186 

reporting  days   194 

rules  and  regulations  for   193 

organization   180,  184 

pensions  for   195 

selection    180 

working  hours   193 

Sanitary  law   219 

Sanitary  organization  in  the  United  States   222 

Sanitary  profession   180 

Sanitary  code  on  infectious  diseases   171 

on  lodging-houses   130 

on  meat  and  foods   161 

on  slaughter-houses   154 

on  stables   152 

i<anUanj  Record,  London   160 

School  inspection   176 

School  sink   98 

Sewage    50 

cremation   52 

definition    50 

discharge  into  waters   51 

filtration    51 

pollution  of  soil   6 

of  air   17 

of  water   42 

precipitation   52 

disposal,  by  separate  system   57 


IXBEX.  813 

PAGE 

Sewage  disposal,  combined  s^'stem   57 

dry  methods  of   55 

immediate    54 

modes  of   51 

I  ultimate    51 

in  United  States   54 

water-carriage  method   51. 

^e^yer    59 

air  and  gas   63 

brick    60 

connections  with  house-sewer   84 

connections    62 

construction    61 

definition     50 

fall    61 

flow    61 

flushing    65 

joints    61 

materials  used   59 

size  of   62 

ventilation    64 

Sinks    90 

Sites    9 

in  tenements   121 

Sherringham  valve  25,  26 

Slaughter-houses    151 

Smoke  nuisance   146 

Smoke  test   107 

Smoky  chimneys,  causes  of   33 

Soil  and  sites   1 

bacteria  in   5 

contamination  of   6 

composition    1 

definition    1 

diseases  due  to   9 

influence  on  health   7 

Spigot  end  of  pipe   69 

Stables,  rules,  etc.,  in  Boston   151 

in  Chicago                                                                     .  151 

Drainage  and  plumbing  of   151 


314 


INDEX, 


PAGE 

Stables,  New  York  rules,  etc   151 

ventilation  of   152 

Steam  heating   39 

Stoves   35 

Street  paving   10 

Subsoil  drainage   10 

Sullivan,  J  99,  101,  103 

Sykes,  Dr   114 

Syplionage    77 

Sweat-shop.^   138,  139 

Tenement-hou.-es,  cellars   128 

classes    117 

conditions    131 

commission   114,  119,  118,  120 

definition    117 

department,  organization  of   260 

halls    132 

house-drain    12(5 

inspection    189 

inspectors    189 

law    225 

lighting    123 

origin   115 

overcrowding    130 

plumbing    126 

protection  against  fire   122 

problem    Ill 

percentage  of  lot  occupied   122 

report    114 

roofs    132 

rooms    150 

solution    116 

traps    127 

water-closets  in   127 

water-closet  apartments   132 

water-supply  of   125 

Temperature,  ground  4,  14 

Tests,  plumbing   106 

minor    107 

peppermint    108 


INDEX.  315 

PAGE 

Tests,  pressure   107 

scent   108 

smoke   "   107 

Testers,  Banner's   109 

Hudson's    109 

Kemp's    109 

Tide-valves    62 

Tobin's  tube   26 

Tracy,  Dr.  R.  S  viii,  36,  156 

Trades   16,  17 

Offensive    156 

Traps    72 

Antill's    73 

Buchan's    73 

Cottam's   73 

Croydon    73 

definition  of   67 

Dodd's    73 

Hellyer    73 

non-syphoning    71 

main    84 

Renk'a    73 

seal    72 

types  of   73 

Tree-planting    ]0 

Ultimate  disposal  of  sewage   51 

Urinals    92 

*  Valve  closets   95 

Vent-pipes    88 

Ventilation   =   19 

artificial    29 

of  bakeries    149 

definition  of   19 

of  factories   143 

forces  of   22 

of  lodging-houses   136 

methods  of   23 

natural    23 

of  plumbing  system   67 

of  tenement-houses   123 


316 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Ventilation  of  sewers   64 

of  slaughter-houses   154 

of  soil-  and  drain-pipes   85 

of  stables   151 

of  sweat-shops   139 

Ventilators,  cowl   29 

Hinkes,  Bird's   24 

Dr.  Keen's   25 

McKinnell's    27 

Vitrified  pipes   59 

Waring,  Colonel   65 

Warming,  hot  water   33 

methods  of   32 

of  tenements   122 

Water    40 

in  cellars,  causes  of   129 

collection    47 

composition    40 

diseases  due  to  impure   42 

distribution    47 

filtration    48 

ground   >   3 

impurities    41 

influence  of,  on  health   42 

pollution                                                                        .  42 

pressure  test   107 

purification    47 

quality  of   40 

rain    41 

source  of   4^ 

spring    129 

storage   :   47 

subsurface   ■   46 

surface   45 

Water-supply   44 

cisterns    03 

in  tenements   125 

Water  of  wells   47 

Water-closets    93 

apartments    132 


JMJEX.  317 

PAGE 

Water-closets,  in  bakeries   149 

cistern  ,   96 

defects    212 

in  dwellings   135 

in  factories   143 

hopper    90 

in  .lodging-houses   137 

pan    93 

plunger    95 

school  sink   98 

in  tenement-houses   127 

valve    95 

wash-out    96 

wash-dawn    96 

yard-hopper    100 

"Wash-basins    91 

Wash-tubs    91 

Wastes   92 

Wells    40 

Workshops    141 

Wrought  iron   68 

Yards   131 

drains    103 


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14] 


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5.: 


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Greene's  Roof  Trusses  Svo,  1  25 

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6 


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Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover  Svo,  3  00 

Wood's  Turbines  *  Svo,  2  60 

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Baker's  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction  Svo,  5  00 

Black's  United  States  Public  Works  Oblong  4to,  5  00 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures. . .  .8vo,  7  50 
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Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction  Larg^e  ^  f^^^ 

Keep's  Cast  Iron  Svo,  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics  Svo,  7  50 

Martens's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.  (Henning.).z  \  .,  o.u,  .  o^) 

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Metcalf's  Steel.   A  Manual  for  Steel-users  12mo,  2  00 

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7 


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9 


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Merriman  and  Woodward.    Higher  Mathematics  8vo,  5  00 

Merriman's  Method  of  Least  Squares  8vo,  2  00 

Rice  and  Johnson's  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Differential 

Calculus  Small  8vo,  3  00 

**  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus.  2  vols. 

in  one  Small  8vo,  2  50 

Wood's  Elements  of  Co-ordinate  Geometry  8vo,  2  00 

"      Trigometry:  Analytical,  Plane,  and  Spherical. ...  12mo,  1  00 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING. 

MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING,  STEAM  ENGINES 
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Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings  12mo,  2  50 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery  8vo,  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing  8vo,  3  00 

Benjamin's  Wrinkles  and  Recipes  12mo,  2  00 

Carpenter's  Experimental  Engineering  8vo,  6  00 

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Qerk's  Gas  and  Oil  Engine  Small  8vo,  4  00 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing  8vo,  paper,  1  00 

Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing  12mo,  1  50 

"          Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys  12mo,  1  50 

Durley's  Elementary  Text-book  of  the  Kinematics  of  Machines. 

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Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power  . .  12mo,  3  00 

Rope  Driving  12mo,  2  00 

Gill's  Gas  an  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers  12mo,  1  25 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication  12mo,  I  00 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

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Kent's  Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket-book. ...  16mo,  moroooo,  00 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission  8vo,  2  00 


MacCord's  Kinematics;  or.  Practical  Mechanism  .8vo,  5  00 

"        Mechanical  Drawing  4to,  4  00 

"        Velocity  Diagrams  8vo,  1  50 

Mahan's  Industrial  Drawing.    (Thompson.)  8vo,  3  50 

Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels  Bvo,  3  00 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing  Bvo,  2  00 

"     Text-book    of   Mechanical    Drawing  and  Elementary 

Machine  Design  8vo,  3  00 

Richards's  Compressed  Air  12mo,  1  50 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism  8vo,  3  00 

Smith's  Press- working  of  Metals  8vo,  3  00 

Thurston's  Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machin- 
ery and  Mill  Work  8vo,  3  00 

"        Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor  and  the 

Laws  of  Energetics  12mo,  1  00 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing.  .8vo,  7  50 
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"        Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.  (Herr- 
mann—Klein.)  Bvo,  5  00 

"        Hydraulics  and  Hydraulic  Motors.    (Du  Bois.)  .Bvo,  6  00 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover  Bvo,  3  00 

Wood's  Turbines  8vo,  2  60 

MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING. 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures.  .Bvo,  7  50 
Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineer- 
ing  Bvo,  5  00 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering  Bvo,  6  00 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction  Large  Bvo,  6  00 

Keep's  Cast  Iron  Bvo,  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics  Bvo,  7  50 

Martens's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.    (Henning-)  Bvo,  7  50 

Merriman's  Text-book  on  the  Mechanics  of  Materials  Bvo,  4  00 

Strength  of  Materials  12mo,  1  00 

Metcalf's  Steel.    A  Manual  for  Steel-users  12mo,  2  00 

Smith's  Wire:  Its  Use  and  Manufacture  Small  4to,  3  00 

"      Materials  of  Machines  12mo.  1  GO 

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and  their  Constituents  Bvo,  2  50 

Thurston's  Text-book  of  the  Materials  of  Construction  Bvo,  5  00 

Wood's  Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials  and  an  Ap- 
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"      Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics  Bvo,  3  00 

STEAM  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

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Ooss's  Locomotive  Sparks  Bvo,  2  00 

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Button's  Mechanical  Engineering  of  Power  Plants  Bvo,  5  00 

"       Heat  and  Heat-engines  Bvo,  5  00 

12 


Kent's  Steam-boiler  Economy  8vo,  4  00 

Kneass's  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Injector  8vo,  1  50 

MacCord's  Slide-valves  8vo,  2  00 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction  4to,  10  00 

Peabody's  Manual  of  the  Steam-engine  Indicator  12mo,  1  50 

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Peabody  and  Miller.    Steam-boilers  Svo,  4  00 

Pray's  Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator  Large  Svo,  2  50 

Pupin's  Thermodynamics  of  Reversible  Cycles  in  Gases  and 

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Reagan's  Locomotive  Mechanism  and  Engineering  12mo,  2  00 

Rontgen's  Principles  of  Thermodynamics.    (Du  Bois.) . . .  .Svo,  5  00 

Sinclair's  Locomotive  Engine  Running  and  Management.  .12mo,  2  00 

Smart's  Handbook  of  Engineering  Laboratory  Practice. .  12mo,  2  60 

Snow's  Steam-boiler  Practice  Svo,  3  00 

Spangler's  Valve-gears  Svo,  2  50 

"        Notes  on  Thermodynamics  12mo,  1  00 

Thurston's  Handy  Tables  Svo,  1  50 

"        Manual  of  the  Steam-engine...  2  vols.,  Svo,  10  00 

Part  I. — History,  Structure,  and  Theory  Svo,  6  00 

Part  11. — Design,  Construction,  and  Operation  Svo,  6  00 

Thurston's  Handbook  of  Engine  and  Boiler  Trials,  and  the  Use 

of  the  Indicator  and  the  Prony  Brake  Svo,  5  00 

"        Stationary  Steam-engines  Svo,  2  50 

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Machines                                                               Svo,  4  00 

MECHANICS  AND  MACHINERY. 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery  Svo,  2  50 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures.  .Svo,  7  50 

Chordal. — Extracts  from  Letters  12mo,  2  00 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering  Svo,  6  00 

"       Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics  Svo,  2  00 

Compton's  First  Lessons  in  Metal-working  12mo,  1  50 

Compton  and  De  Groodt.  The  Speed  Lathe  12mo,  160 

Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing  12mo,  1  50 

"        Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys  12mo,  1  50 

Dana's  Text-book  of  Elementary  Mechanics  for  the  Use  of 

Colleges  and  Schools  12mo,  1  50 

Dingey^s  Machinery  Pattern  Making  12mo,  2  00 

Dredge's  Record  of  the  Transportation  Exhibits  Building  of  the 

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Du  Bois's  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanics: 

Vol.  I. — Kinematics  Svo,  3  50 

VoL  IL— Statics  Svo,  4  00 

Vol.  III.— Kinetics  Svo,  3  50 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering.   Vol.  I  Small  4to,  7  50 

Vol.II  Small  4to,  10  00 

13 


Durley's  Elementary  Text-book  of  the  Kinematics  of  Machines. 

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Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist  :16mo,  1  00 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power.  12mo,  3  00 

"       Rope  Driving  12mo,  2  00 

Goss's  Locomotive  Sparks  8vo,  2  00 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication  12mo,  1  00 

Holly's  Art  of  Saw  Filing  18mo,  75 

•Johnson's  Theoretical  Mechanics  12mo,  3  00 

Johnson's  Short  Course  in  Statics  by  Graphic  and  Algebraic 

Methods.    (In  preparation.) 
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Part  II. — Form,  Strength  and  Proportions  of  Parts  8vo,  3  00 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission  8vo,  2  00 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics  8vo,  7  50 

MacCord's  Kinematics;  or.  Practical  Mechanism  8vo,  5  00 

"        Velocity  Diagrams  8vo,  1  50 

Merriman's  Text-book  on  the  Mechanics  of  Materials  8vo,  4  00 

•  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics  8vo,  4  00 

Reagan's  Locomotive  Mechanism  and  Engineering  12mo,  2  00 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing  8vo,  2  00 

"     Text-book   of    Mechanical    Drawing   and  Elementary 

Machine  Design  8vo,  3  00 

Richards's  Compressed  Air  12mo,  1  50 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism  8vo,  3  00 

Ryan,  Norris,  and  Hoxie's  Electrical  Machinery.    {In  preparation.) 

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Smith's  Press- working  of  Metals  Svo,  3  00 

"      Materials  of  Machines  12mo,  1  00 

Thurston's  Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machin- 
ery and  Mill  Work  8vo,  3  00 

"         Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the 

Laws  of  Energetics  12mo,  1  00 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing.  .8vo,  7  50 
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(Herrman — Klein.)   8vo,  5  00 

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(man — Klein.)   8vo,  5  00 

Wood's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics  8vo,  3  00 

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"      Turbines   8vo,  2  50 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893  4to,  1  00 

METALLURGY. 

Egleston's  Metallurgy  of  Silver,  Gold,  and  Mercury: 

VoL  L— Silver  8vo,  7  50 

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**  Iles's  Lead-smelting  12mo,  2  50 

Keep's  Cast  Iron  Svo,  2  50 

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Metcalf's  Steel.    A  Manual  for  Steel-users  12mo,  2  00 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines  12mo,  1  GO 

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and  Their  Constituents  Svo,  2  50 

14 


MINERALOGY. 


Barringer's  Description   of  Minerals   of   Commercial  Value. 

Oblong,  morocco,  2  50 

Boyd's  Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia  8vo,  3  00 

"      Map  of  Southwest  Virginia  Pocket-book  form,  2  00 

Brush's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.    (Penfield.)  .8vo,  4  00 

Chester's  Catalogue  of  Minerals  8vo,  paper,  1  00 

Cloth,  1  25 

"       Dictionary  of  the  Names  of  Minerals  Svo,  3  50 

Dana's  System  of  Mineralogy  Large  Svo,  half  leather,  12  50 

"     First  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "  System  of  Mineralogy." 

Large  Svo,  1  00 

"     Text-book  of  Mineralogy  Svo,  4  00 

"     Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them  12mo,  1  50 

"     Catalogue  of  American  Localities  of  Minerals .  Large  Svo,  1  00 

"     Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography  12mo,  2  00 

Egleston's  Catalogue  of  Minerals  and  Synonyms  Svo,  2  50 

Hussak's    The    Determination    of    Rock-forming  Minerals. 

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Mineral  Tests  Svo,  paper,  50 

Rosenbusch's  Microscopical  Physiography  of  the  Rock-making 

Minerals.     (Idding's.)  Svo,  6  00 

•Tillman's  Text-book  of  Important  Minerals  and  Rocks.. Svo,  2  00 

Williams's  Manual  of  Lithology  Svo,  3  00 


MINING. 

Beard's  Ventilation  of  Mines  12mo,  2  50 

Boyd's  Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia  Svo,  3  00 

"      Map  of  Southwest  Virginia  Pocket-book  form,  2  00 

♦Drinker's    Tunneling,    Explosive    Compounds,    and  Rock 

Drills  4to,  half  morocco,  25  00 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives  Svo,  4  00 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses  12mo,  2  00 

Goodyear's  Coal-mines  of  the  Western  Coast  of  the  United 

States   12mo,  2  50 

Ihlseng's  Manual  of  Mining  Svo,  4  00 

**  lies' s  Lead-smelting  12mo,  2  50 

Kunhardt's  Practice  ot  Ore  Dressing  in  Europe  Svo,  1  50 

O'Driscoll's  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores  Svo,  2  00 

Sawyer's  Accidents  in  Mines  Svo,  7  00 

Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives  Svo,  4  00 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes  12mo,  1  50 

Wilson's  Chlorination  Process  12mo,  1  50 

Wilson's  Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining  12mo,  2  00 

Wilson's  Treatise  on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Mine  Ventila- 
tion  12mo,  1  26 


SANITARY  SCIENCE. 

Fol well's  Sewerage.   (Designing,  Construction  and  Maintenance.) 

Svo,  3  00 

"       Water-supply  Engineering  Svo,  4  00 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health  12mo,  1  50 

"      Water-filtration  Works  12mo,  2  60 

15 


Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  House-inspection  16mo,  1  00 

Goodrich's  Economical  Disposal  of  Towns*  Ref  use ...  Demy  8vo,  3  50 

Hazen's  Filtration  of  Public  Water-supplies  8vo,  3  00 

Kiersted's  Sewage  Disposal  o  12mo,  1  25 

Leach's  The  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Food  with  Special 

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Mason's  Water-supply.    (Considered  Principally  from  a  San- 
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"      Examination  of  Water.     (Chemical  and  Bacterio- 
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Merriman's  Elements  of  Sanitary  Engineering  Svo,  2  00 

Nichols's  Water-supply.    (Considered  Mainly  from  a  Chemical 

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Ogden's  Sewer  Design  12mo,  2  00 

•Price's  Handbook  on  Sanitation  12mo,  1  50 

Richards's  Cost  of  Food.  A  Study  in  Dietaries  12mo,  1  00 

Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sani- 
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Rideal's  Sewage  and  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage  8vo,  3  50 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies  8vo,  5  00 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water  Svo,  3  50 

WoodhuU's  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene  16mo,  1  50 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

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Large  Svo,  1  60 

Ferrel's  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Winds  Svo,  4  00 

Haines's  American  Railway  Management  12mo,  2  60 

Mott's  Composition,  Digestibility,  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food. 

Mounted  chart,  1  26 

"     Fallacy  of  the  Present  Theory  of  Sound  16mo,  1  00 

Ricketts's  History  of  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  1824- 

1894  Small  Svo,  3  00 

Rotherham's  Emphasised  New  Testament  Large  Svo,  2  00 

"         Critical  Emphasised  New  Testament  12mo,  1  60 

Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog  Svo,  3  50 

Totten's  Important  Question  in  Metrology  Svo,  2  50 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893  4to,  1  00 

Worcester  and  Atkinson.    Small  Hospitals,  Establishment  and 

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Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old  Testament 

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Letteris's  Hebrew  Bible  Svo,  2  26 

16 


